flowchart LR
O[Organisational<br/>objectives] --> D[Demand<br/>forecast]
O --> S[Supply<br/>forecast]
D --> G[Gap analysis]
S --> G
G --> A[Action plan<br/>Recruit · Train · Redeploy · Retain · Reduce]
A -. Feedback .-> O
classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;
6 Human Resource Planning and Job Analysis: HRP Process, Forecasting Methods, Job Description and Specification, KSAOs, and Job Design (Rotation, Enlargement, Enrichment and the Hackman-Oldham Model)
6.1 Two Sister Processes
This chapter covers two closely linked HR processes that feed each other. Human Resource Planning (HRP) answers the question “how many people of what kind do we need, and when?” Job Analysis answers the prior question “what does each of these jobs actually involve, and what kind of person can do it?” You cannot plan headcount without knowing what each job demands; you cannot specify a job without a sense of where it fits in the workforce plan.
6.2 A · Human Resource Planning
6.2.1 What is HRP?
Human Resource Planning (HRP) — also called manpower planning in older texts — is the process of forecasting an organisation’s future demand for and supply of the right type of people in the right number, and matching the two through deliberate action.
TipTwo Textbook Definitions of HRP
| Author | Definition | Foregrounds |
|---|---|---|
| Eric Vetter | “The process by which management determines how the organisation should move from its current manpower position to its desired manpower position” | Movement from “as-is” to “to-be” |
| James W. Walker | “Estimating the demand for human resources, identifying the sources of supply, and developing strategies to match demand and supply” | Three-step demand-supply-strategy spine |
6.2.2 Nature and Features of HRP
TipSix Features of HRP
- Future-oriented — always about a horizon (short, intermediate, long).
- Goal-oriented — derived from the firm’s strategy.
- System-oriented — links recruitment, training, succession, compensation and separation.
- Continuous — rolled forward as assumptions change.
- Quantitative and qualitative — counts heads and assesses skill mix, attitude, culture fit.
- Time-bound — every demand and every supply estimate is anchored to a date.
6.2.3 Six Reasons HRP is Strategic
- Reduces uncertainty — replaces panic with planning.
- Avoids surprises — both shortages and surpluses are expensive.
- Enables training and development — a multi-year skill-gap forecast is the single best input to a training plan.
- Supports succession — who replaces the plant manager when she retires in three years?
- Controls labour cost — people are typically the largest single line item.
- Aligns HR with strategy — a diversification or new technology demands a different workforce.
6.2.4 The Five-Step HRP Process
TipFive Steps in Human Resource Planning
| # | Step | What it produces |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Analyse organisational objectives | Linkage between business strategy and HR plan |
| 2 | Forecast demand for HR | Number and type of people the firm will need |
| 3 | Forecast supply of HR (internal + external) | Number and type likely to be available |
| 4 | Identify the gap (demand − supply) | Surplus or shortage by category |
| 5 | Action plan | Recruitment, training, redeployment, retention, redundancy |
6.2.5 Methods of Demand Forecasting
TipSix Demand-Forecasting Methods
| Method | What it does | Useful when |
|---|---|---|
| Managerial judgement | Line managers estimate people they will need | Stable environments, small firms |
| Ratio-trend analysis | Past ratios (1 supervisor : 10 operators) projected forward | Steady production technology |
| Work-study technique | Time-and-motion data → man-hour requirements | Repetitive, measurable work |
| Regression analysis | Statistical relationship between business variable and headcount | Sufficient historical data |
| Delphi technique | Iterative anonymous expert estimates converging to consensus | Long horizon, high uncertainty |
| Workforce analytics / AI | Algorithms over operational data | Large firms with HRIS in place |
6.2.6 Methods of Supply Forecasting
TipFive Supply-Forecasting Methods
| Method | What it does |
|---|---|
| Skill inventory | Database of current employees’ skills, qualifications, experience |
| Replacement chart | Visual map of who replaces whom on the organisation chart |
| Succession plan | Multi-year pipeline for critical positions |
| Markov analysis | Probabilistic transitions between job categories over time |
| External labour market scan | Demographics, education output, competitor poaching |
NoteDistractor warning — Delphi vs Brainstorming
- Delphi = iterative, anonymous, written, expert estimates converging to consensus. (Demand forecasting.)
- Brainstorming = open, face-to-face group idea generation. (Different technique.)
NTA exploits this — Delphi is anonymous and iterative; brainstorming is open and one-round.
6.2.7 Barriers to Effective HRP
- HR plans dissociated from business strategy — the most damaging.
- Conflict between line and HR.
- Inadequate information systems.
- Resistance from employees and unions.
- Inertia — last year’s headcount becomes this year’s plan by default.
- Volatile environments in which forecasts age within months.
6.3 B · Job Analysis
6.3.1 What is Job Analysis?
Job analysis is the process of collecting, examining and recording information about the contents of a job and the human attributes needed to perform it. Its two outputs are the job description (statement of duties) and the job specification (statement of qualifications).
TipJob Analysis at a Glance
| Element | Concerned with | Output |
|---|---|---|
| Job description | The job itself | Duties, responsibilities, working conditions, reporting lines |
| Job specification (Person specification) | The person to do the job | Qualifications, experience, skills, abilities, personal traits |
6.3.2 Six-Step Process of Job Analysis
TipSix Steps in Job Analysis
| # | Step | What it produces |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Determine the use | Selection? Training? Compensation? Each needs different detail |
| 2 | Review background | Existing chart, process flow, prior job descriptions |
| 3 | Select representative jobs | A sample where total coverage is impractical |
| 4 | Collect job analysis data | Using the methods below |
| 5 | Verify with the job-holder and supervisor | Reduces bias and error |
| 6 | Develop job description and specification | The two final documents |
6.3.3 Six Methods of Collecting Job Analysis Data
TipSix Methods of Job Analysis Data Collection
| Method | How it works | Best for |
|---|---|---|
| Observation | Analyst watches the job-holder work | Manual, short-cycle jobs |
| Interview | Structured/semi-structured conversation with job-holder and supervisor | Most jobs; especially knowledge work |
| Questionnaire | Standardised forms filled by job-holder | Large numbers of similar jobs |
| Daily diary / log | Job-holder records activities through the day | Managerial and professional jobs |
| Critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954) | Documenting especially effective or ineffective behaviour | Identifying the core of the job |
| Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) | 194 standardised job elements rated for use (McCormick, 1972) | Cross-job comparison |
NotePYQ anchor — PAQ has 194 elements
McCormick’s Position Analysis Questionnaire has 194 elements grouped into six divisions. NTA tests this exact number.
6.3.4 Components of a Job Description
TipStandard Job-Description Skeleton
| Component | Content |
|---|---|
| Job identification | Title, code, department, location, grade |
| Job summary | One paragraph on the purpose |
| Duties and responsibilities | The “what” — action-verb led |
| Working conditions | Hazards, physical demands, hours, travel |
| Relationships | Reports to, reports from, internal and external contacts |
| Authority | Decisions the job-holder may take alone / recommend / escalate |
| Performance standards | Yardsticks by which the job will be evaluated |
6.3.5 The KSAO Model of Job Specification
TipThe KSAO Model
| Element | What it covers | Example for a sales manager |
|---|---|---|
| Knowledge | Body of facts | Product features, pricing rules |
| Skills | Practical proficiency | Negotiation, presentation, CRM software |
| Abilities | Underlying capacities | Numerical reasoning, persuasion, stamina |
| Other characteristics | Traits, attitudes, motivations | Drive, integrity, willingness to travel |
A further cut distinguishes essential vs desirable requirements.
6.3.6 Eight Uses of Job Analysis
TipEight Uses of Job Analysis
| Use | How job analysis informs it |
|---|---|
| Recruitment & selection | Defines what to advertise for and what to assess |
| Training | Identifies the gap between current ability and job demand |
| Performance appraisal | Names the standards |
| Compensation | Job evaluation begins with the description |
| Career planning | Maps career paths and required moves |
| Health & safety | Identifies hazards and required protective measures |
| HR planning | Provides the units the workforce plan is built from |
| Legal compliance | Defines bona fide occupational qualifications; supports defence against discrimination claims |
6.4 C · Job Design
Job analysis describes the job as it is; job design changes the job as it should be. Four classical approaches dominate.
TipFour Classical Approaches to Job Design
| Approach | What it does | Trade-off |
|---|---|---|
| Job simplification | Reduces the job to its smallest, repeatable element (Taylor) | High efficiency, low motivation |
| Job rotation | Moves the worker through different jobs in a cycle | Reduces boredom; brief disruption |
| Job enlargement (horizontal loading) | Expands the number of tasks at the same skill level | Variety without responsibility |
| Job enrichment (vertical loading) | Expands responsibility — planning, control, autonomy | Higher motivation; harder to design |
NoteDistractor warning — Enlargement vs Enrichment
- Job enlargement = horizontal loading — more tasks at the same level.
- Job enrichment = vertical loading — more responsibility, autonomy, planning.
NTA stems exploit this distinction. Herzberg’s two-factor theory is the basis of job enrichment.
6.4.1 Herzberg’s Job Enrichment
Frederick Herzberg’s 1968 Harvard Business Review article — “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?” — argued that motivators come from giving workers more of the job to manage themselves: planning, scheduling, quality-checking, problem-solving.
6.4.2 Hackman–Oldham Job Characteristics Model (1980)
Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham’s Work Redesign (1980) offered the most influential modern model. Five core job dimensions produce three critical psychological states, which produce four work outcomes — moderated by the worker’s growth-need strength.
TipHackman–Oldham — Five Core Dimensions
| Core dimension | Definition |
|---|---|
| Skill variety | Different activities, different talents called upon |
| Task identity | Doing a whole, identifiable piece of work |
| Task significance | Impact on others’ lives or work |
| Autonomy | Freedom to schedule and decide how to do the work |
| Feedback | Direct, clear information about effectiveness |
TipThree Critical Psychological States
| State | Produced by | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Experienced meaningfulness | Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance | High intrinsic motivation, high performance |
| Experienced responsibility | Autonomy | Low absenteeism and turnover |
| Knowledge of results | Feedback | High satisfaction with the work |
6.4.3 The Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
TipHackman–Oldham MPS Formula
MPS = [(Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance) ÷ 3] × Autonomy × Feedback
Because autonomy and feedback are multiplicative, a job with zero on either is unmotivating regardless of the other dimensions.
NotePYQ anchor — Autonomy and Feedback are multiplicative
Hackman-Oldham’s MPS formula multiplies autonomy and feedback with the average of the first three dimensions. NTA stems repeatedly test this — zero autonomy or zero feedback drives MPS to zero.
6.5 Practice Questions
Q 01
HRP definition
Easy
Human Resource Planning is primarily concerned with:
View solution
Correct Option: B
The demand-supply matching loop is the spine of HRP.
Q 02
Forecasting techniques match
Hard
Match the technique with what it is used for:
| (i) | Delphi | (a) | Visual mapping of internal successors |
| (ii) | Markov analysis | (b) | Iterative anonymous expert forecast |
| (iii) | Replacement chart | (c) | Probabilistic movement of staff between job categories |
| (iv) | Critical incident technique | (d) | Identifying core behaviours of a job |
View solution
Correct Option: A
Delphi → expert forecast; Markov → probabilistic transitions; Replacement → mapping successors; Critical incident → core behaviour.
Q 03
Outputs of job analysis
Easy
Which is not an output of job analysis?
View solution
Correct Option: C
Job evaluation uses description and specification as inputs but is a separate process.
Q 04
Enrichment vs enlargement
Medium
Adding more responsibility to a job — planning, scheduling, self-checking — rather than more tasks at the same level, is called:
View solution
Correct Option: C
Enrichment = vertical loading; enlargement = horizontal loading.
Q 05
Hackman-Oldham — multiplicative
Hard
In Hackman-Oldham's MPS formula, which pair of dimensions has a multiplicative effect?
View solution
Correct Option: C
Zero autonomy or zero feedback drives MPS to zero.
Q 06
PAQ — number of elements
Hard
McCormick's Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) covers approximately how many standardised job elements?
View solution
Correct Option: C
194 elements in six divisions.
Q 07
HRP process order
Medium
Arrange the HRP steps in correct order:
(i) Forecasting demand
(ii) Action plan
(iii) Forecasting supply
(iv) Gap analysis
(v) Analysing organisational objectives
View solution
Correct Option: A
Objectives → demand → supply → gap → action.
Q 08
Job specification
Easy
A job specification is best described as a statement of:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Description = the job; Specification = the person.
Q 09
KSAO
Medium
In the KSAO model, the "O" stands for:
View solution
Correct Option: C
Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, Other characteristics.
Q 10
Critical incident technique
Medium
The Critical Incident Technique was developed by:
View solution
Correct Option: B
J.C. Flanagan, 1954.
Q 11
Delphi — feature
Medium
A distinctive feature of the Delphi technique is:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Delphi is anonymous and iterative.
Q 12
Job enrichment
Medium
The concept of job enrichment in the modern HRM tradition originates with:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Herzberg 1968 — based on his two-factor theory.
Q 13
Five core dimensions
Hard
Which is not one of Hackman-Oldham's five core job dimensions?
View solution
Correct Option: C
Five: Skill variety, Task identity, Task significance, Autonomy, Feedback.
Q 14
Replacement chart
Medium
A replacement chart is most useful in:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Replacement chart maps who replaces whom on the organisation chart.
Q 15
Job design ladder
Medium
The progression in job design from simplest to most enriched is:
View solution
Correct Option: A
The standard ladder.
Q 16
Hackman-Oldham — psychological state
Hard
In Hackman-Oldham, experienced responsibility is produced by:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Autonomy → experienced responsibility. Feedback → knowledge of results. The first three (variety + identity + significance) → meaningfulness.
Q 17
Barriers to HRP
Medium
The most damaging barrier to effective HRP is:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Dissociation from strategy is the textbook headline barrier.
Q 18
Job analysis use
Easy
Which is not a use of job analysis?
View solution
Correct Option: D
Job analysis informs many HR sub-systems but is not a strategic-planning tool in itself.
Q 19
Loading types
Medium
Horizontal loading of a job means:
View solution
Correct Option: B
Horizontal loading = job enlargement.
Q 20
Walker's definition
Hard
"Estimating the demand for human resources, identifying sources of supply, and developing strategies to match demand and supply" — this HRP definition is by:
View solution
Correct Option: B
James W. Walker.
6.6 Quick Recall
ImportantQuick recall
- HRP = matching demand and supply of people. Five steps: Objectives → Demand → Supply → Gap → Action.
- HRP definitions: Vetter (movement to desired position), Walker (demand-supply-strategy).
- Demand-forecasting methods: managerial judgement, ratio-trend, work-study, regression, Delphi (anonymous, iterative), workforce analytics.
- Supply-forecasting methods: skill inventory, replacement chart, succession plan, Markov analysis, external scan.
- Job analysis produces job description (the job) and job specification (the person).
- Six job-analysis methods: observation, interview, questionnaire, diary, critical incident (Flanagan 1954), PAQ — 194 elements (McCormick).
- KSAO of a job specification: Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, Other characteristics.
- Eight uses of job analysis: recruitment, training, appraisal, compensation, career planning, health & safety, HR planning, legal compliance.
- Job design ladder: simplification → rotation → enlargement → enrichment.
- Enrichment = vertical loading (responsibility); Enlargement = horizontal loading (more tasks).
- Herzberg (1968) — job enrichment based on two-factor theory.
- Hackman-Oldham (1980) — five core dimensions: Skill variety, Task identity, Task significance, Autonomy, Feedback. Three critical psychological states: meaningfulness, responsibility, knowledge of results.
- MPS formula: [(SV + TI + TS) ÷ 3] × Autonomy × Feedback — autonomy and feedback are multiplicative.