22  Leadership and Communication: Trait-Behavioural-Contingency Theories (Fiedler, Path-Goal, Hersey-Blanchard, Vroom-Yetton), Transformational vs Transactional, and the Communication Process, Networks and Barriers

22.1 Direction and Voice

If motivation gives the energy and attitudes give the direction, leadership focuses that energy on a shared goal and communication is the channel through which it flows. Both are studied at the individual-and-group boundary of OB — between what a manager is (traits, styles) and what an organisation does (structure, processes). This chapter traces the four families of leadership theory (trait, behavioural, contingency, neo-charismatic) and the matching architecture of organisational communication.

22.2 A · Leadership

22.2.1 Concept and Definitions

Leadership is the process of influencing a group toward the achievement of a shared goal. Three textbook definitions converge on this view:

TipThree Standard Definitions of Leadership
Author Definition
Stephen P. Robbins “The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals”
Koontz and O’Donnell “The art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly toward the achievement of group goals”
Ralph Stogdill “The process of influencing the activities of an organised group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement”

22.2.2 Leadership vs Management

TipLeadership vs Management
Dimension Management Leadership
Focus Coping with complexity Coping with change
Aim Order and consistency Movement and direction
Means Planning, budgeting, controlling Vision, alignment, motivation
Power base Position, authority Personal, inspirational
Time horizon Short to medium Medium to long

Kotter’s classic phrasing: management does things right, leadership does the right things.

22.3 1 · Trait Theory of Leadership

The earliest “great-man” approach asked which personal traits distinguish leaders from non-leaders. Research from the 1930s–50s produced inconsistent results until the Big Five gave the field a stable structure.

TipTraits Most Consistently Linked to Leadership
Trait Why it matters
Extraversion Strongest predictor of emergence; activity, sociability
Conscientiousness Disciplined, organised, achievement-striving
Openness to experience Vision, creativity
Integrity / honesty Trust
Self-confidence Decisiveness
Intelligence Especially verbal and analytic
Emotional intelligence (Goleman) Self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, social skill
NotePYQ trap — Extraversion predicts EMERGENCE; Conscientiousness predicts effectiveness

Across studies, extraversion best predicts who emerges as a leader; conscientiousness is more strongly linked to leadership effectiveness.

22.4 2 · Behavioural Theories

Behavioural research shifted focus from what leaders are to what they do.

22.4.1 Lewin–Lippitt–White (1939)

Kurt Lewin’s classic study of youth groups identified three leadership styles:

TipThree Lewin Styles
Style How it operates Best for
Autocratic Decisions taken alone Crisis, low skill
Democratic (participative) Decisions taken with the group Most professional settings
Laissez-faire (free-rein) Decisions left to the group Creative, expert, self-managing teams

22.4.2 Ohio State Studies (1940s)

Two independent dimensions of leader behaviour:

TipOhio State Two Dimensions
Dimension What it captures
Initiating structure Defining roles, scheduling, directing tasks
Consideration Trust, respect, warmth in relationships

A leader can score high or low on each independently.

22.4.3 Michigan Studies (Likert, 1950s)

Two contrasting orientations:

  • Production-oriented — concerned with the task and the production process.
  • Employee-oriented — concerned with people, their welfare and development.

Likert’s research suggested employee-oriented leaders produced higher group productivity and satisfaction. He later proposed four systems of management:

TipLikert’s Four Systems
System Description
System 1 Exploitative authoritative
System 2 Benevolent authoritative
System 3 Consultative
System 4 Participative — most effective

22.4.4 Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid (1964)

Two dimensions crossed on a 9-point scale: concern for production × concern for people.

TipThe Managerial Grid — Five Styles
Coordinate Style
1,1 Impoverished — minimum effort
1,9 Country-club — focus on people, neglect output
9,1 Authority-compliance / task — focus on output, neglect people
5,5 Middle of the road — balance through compromise
9,9 Team — high concern for both; the ideal style

22.5 3 · Contingency Theories

Behavioural research could not show a single best style for all situations. Contingency theories matched style to situation.

22.5.1 Fiedler’s Contingency Model (1967)

Fred Fiedler’s model rests on three situational variables and a single trait measure.

TipFiedler’s Three Situational Variables
Variable What it captures
Leader-member relations Good or poor
Task structure High or low
Position power Strong or weak

Fiedler measured the leader’s style with the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale — a leader who rates the LPC favourably is relationship-oriented; one who rates them harshly is task-oriented.

TipFiedler’s Matching Rule
Situation favourableness Best style
Very favourable or very unfavourable Task-oriented (low LPC)
Moderately favourable Relationship-oriented (high LPC)

22.5.2 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership (1969)

Style is adjusted to follower readiness — a combination of ability and willingness.

TipHersey-Blanchard Four Styles by Readiness
Readiness Description Best style
R1 Unable, unwilling / insecure Telling (S1) — high task, low relationship
R2 Unable but willing Selling (S2) — high task, high relationship
R3 Able but unwilling / insecure Participating (S3) — low task, high relationship
R4 Able and willing Delegating (S4) — low task, low relationship

22.5.3 House’s Path-Goal Theory (1971)

Robert House drew on Vroom’s expectancy theory: the leader’s job is to clarify the path from the follower’s effort to valued rewards.

TipHouse’s Four Leader Behaviours
Behaviour Useful when
Directive Task ambiguous, follower inexperienced
Supportive Stressful, repetitive task
Participative Follower wants involvement; complex task
Achievement-oriented Challenging task, capable follower

Path-goal uses two contingencies — follower characteristics (locus of control, experience, ability) and environmental factors (task structure, formal authority, work group).

22.5.4 Vroom-Yetton-Jago Decision Model (1973, 1988)

Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton (later with Arthur Jago) offered a normative model for how a leader should involve the group in a decision. The leader works through a decision tree using up to twelve diagnostic questions to choose among five styles:

TipVroom-Yetton’s Five Decision Styles
Code Style
AI Autocratic — solve alone with available information
AII Autocratic — solve alone but ask for information
CI Consultative — consult individuals separately, then decide
CII Consultative — consult as a group, then decide
GII Group — share with the group and decide together

22.6 4 · Neo-Charismatic Theories

These theories emerged in the 1980s to capture the inspirational, vision-driven leadership absent from earlier models.

22.6.1 Burns and Bass — Transformational vs Transactional

James MacGregor Burns (1978) distinguished two leadership types; Bernard Bass (1985) developed the empirical measures.

TipTransformational vs Transactional
Dimension Transactional Transformational
Relationship Exchange Inspiration
Goals Short-term Long-term, vision
Motivation Self-interest Higher-order needs
Tools Contingent reward, management by exception Vision, charisma, coaching
Outcome Expected performance Performance beyond expectations

22.6.2 Bass’s Four I’s of Transformational Leadership

TipThe Four I’s
I Behaviour
Idealised influence Charisma — leader as role model
Inspirational motivation Articulating a compelling vision
Intellectual stimulation Challenging assumptions, encouraging creativity
Individualised consideration Attention to each follower’s growth

22.6.3 Other Modern Leadership Concepts

TipNewer Leadership Frameworks
Concept Author / Idea
Charismatic leadership Conger & Kanungo — followers attribute heroic abilities
Servant leadership Robert Greenleaf — leader serves followers first
Authentic leadership Bill George — self-awareness, relational transparency, integrity
Level 5 leadership Jim Collins — personal humility + professional will
Ethical leadership Brown, Treviño & Harrison — moral person + moral manager
LMX theory Graen — leader-member exchange; in-group vs out-group
Shared / distributed leadership Leadership emerges in the team
Emotional intelligence and leadership Goleman — EI predicts effectiveness

22.7 B · Communication

22.7.1 Definition and Importance

Communication is the transfer and understanding of meaning. Keith Davis called it “the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another.” It serves four functions in organisations — information, motivation, control, emotional expression.

22.7.2 The Communication Process — Shannon and Weaver Roots

The standard model traces a message through seven elements.

TipThe Communication Process
Element Role
Sender / Source Originates the message
Encoding Translates the idea into symbols
Message The content
Channel The medium — face-to-face, phone, email
Receiver Decodes the message
Decoding Interprets symbols into meaning
Feedback Receiver’s response back to sender
Noise Anything that distorts the message 

flowchart LR
  S[Sender] --> E[Encoding]
  E --> M[Message]
  M --> C[Channel]
  C --> D[Decoding]
  D --> R[Receiver]
  R --> F[Feedback]
  F -. loop .-> S
  N[Noise] -. distorts .-> C
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

22.7.3 Direction of Communication

TipFour Directions of Organisational Communication
Direction Examples
Downward Instructions, policy, feedback to subordinates
Upward Reports, suggestions, grievances, surveys
Horizontal Across peers in same level
Diagonal Across levels and functions, cutting through hierarchy

22.7.4 Formal Communication Networks

TipFive Classical Small-Group Networks
Network Description Centralisation Speed Accuracy
Chain A → B → C → D Moderate Fast for simple High for simple
Wheel / Star All through a central person High Fast High
Y Modified chain with one branch Moderate Moderate Moderate
Circle Each communicates with two neighbours Low Slow Lower for simple
All-channel (Comcon) Everyone communicates with everyone None Fast for complex High for complex

22.7.5 The Informal Grapevine

Keith Davis identified four grapevine patterns:

TipDavis’s Four Grapevine Patterns
Pattern Description
Single strand A tells B tells C tells D — most distortion
Gossip One person tells many — non-selective
Probability Randomly tell several others — random diffusion
Cluster Tell selected others, who tell selected others — most common in workplaces

22.7.6 Barriers to Communication

TipFive Families of Barriers
Family Examples
Physical Noise, distance, time, technology breakdown
Semantic Jargon, ambiguity, language differences
Psychological Selective perception, emotions, distrust
Organisational Hierarchy, status differences, information overload
Cultural High-low context, non-verbal cues, etiquette

22.7.7 Overcoming Barriers

  • Use simple, direct language.
  • Match channel to message (rich for complex / ambiguous).
  • Active listening — paraphrase, reflect, summarise.
  • Encourage upward feedback.
  • Use multiple channels for important messages.
  • Constrain information overload — prioritise.

22.7.8 Non-Verbal Communication

Up to two-thirds of meaning in face-to-face interaction is carried non-verbally — through:

  • Kinesics — body movement, gesture, facial expression.
  • Proxemics — use of space and distance.
  • Paralanguage — tone, pitch, pace.
  • Chronemics — use of time.
  • Haptics — touch.
  • Appearance and artefacts.

22.8 Practice Questions

Q 01 Leadership definition Easy

Leadership is best described as:

  • AThe exercise of formal authority
  • BInfluencing a group toward the achievement of a shared goal
  • CIssuing orders
  • DSetting the budget
View solution
Correct Option: B
Leadership is influence toward a shared goal.
Q 02 Lewin styles Easy

Lewin, Lippitt and White identified which three leadership styles?

  • ATrait, behavioural, contingency
  • BAutocratic, democratic, laissez-faire
  • CCharismatic, transactional, transformational
  • DDirective, supportive, participative
View solution
Correct Option: B
Three classic styles.
Q 03 Managerial Grid Medium

The "9,9" style on Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid is:

  • AImpoverished
  • BCountry-club
  • CTask / authority-compliance
  • DTeam — high on both people and production
View solution
Correct Option: D
9,9 = Team management — the ideal style.
Q 04 Fiedler Hard

Fiedler's contingency model measures leadership style using the:

  • ABig Five inventory
  • BLeast Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale
  • CThematic Apperception Test
  • DJohari Window
View solution
Correct Option: B
LPC — high LPC = relationship-oriented, low LPC = task-oriented.
Q 05 Hersey-Blanchard Medium

In Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership, a follower who is "able and willing" is best matched with which style?

  • ATelling
  • BSelling
  • CParticipating
  • DDelegating
View solution
Correct Option: D
R4 (able + willing) → S4 Delegating.
Q 06 Path-goal Medium

Path-goal theory is based on:

  • AMaslow's hierarchy
  • BVroom's expectancy theory
  • CEquity theory
  • DReinforcement theory
View solution
Correct Option: B
House drew on Vroom's expectancy logic.
Q 07 Vroom-Yetton Hard

The Vroom-Yetton-Jago model identifies how many decision styles?

  • AThree
  • BFour
  • CFive
  • DSeven
View solution
Correct Option: C
Five: AI, AII, CI, CII, GII.
Q 08 Transformational Medium

Bass's "four I's" of transformational leadership are:

  • AInitiative, intelligence, integrity, intuition
  • BIdealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualised consideration
  • CIncome, influence, identity, ideology
  • DInitiative, inspiration, instruction, intervention
View solution
Correct Option: B
Bass's 4 I's.
Q 09 Servant Medium

Servant leadership was articulated by:

  • ARobert Greenleaf
  • BJim Collins
  • CBernard Bass
  • DJames MacGregor Burns
View solution
Correct Option: A
Robert Greenleaf — leader serves followers first.
Q 10 Match Hard

Match the leadership theory with its author:

(i) Contingency model (LPC) (a) House
(ii) Situational leadership (b) Hersey & Blanchard
(iii) Path-goal theory (c) Fiedler
(iv) Normative decision model (d) Vroom & Yetton
  • A(i)-(c), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(d)
  • B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
  • C(i)-(d), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
  • D(i)-(b), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(c)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Fiedler-LPC; Hersey-Blanchard-situational; House-path-goal; Vroom-Yetton-normative.
Q 11 Communication element Easy

Which is not an element of the communication process?

  • ASender
  • BEncoding
  • CFeedback
  • DProductivity
View solution
Correct Option: D
Productivity is an outcome, not a process element.
Q 12 Wheel network Medium

In Bavelas's small-group networks, which is the most centralised?

  • ACircle
  • BWheel
  • CAll-channel
  • DChain
View solution
Correct Option: B
Wheel — all flow through a central person.
Q 13 Grapevine Medium

According to Keith Davis, the most common grapevine pattern in workplaces is:

  • ASingle strand
  • BGossip
  • CProbability
  • DCluster
View solution
Correct Option: D
Cluster pattern — selective passing to selected others.
Q 14 Direction Medium

A suggestion-scheme submission from a worker to senior management is an example of:

  • ADownward communication
  • BUpward communication
  • CHorizontal communication
  • DDiagonal communication
View solution
Correct Option: B
From low to high in the hierarchy.
Q 15 Kinesics Hard

"Kinesics" in non-verbal communication refers to:

  • AUse of space
  • BBody movement, gesture and facial expression
  • CUse of time
  • DTouch
View solution
Correct Option: B
Kinesics = body language. Proxemics = space; chronemics = time; haptics = touch.
Q 16 Likert Medium

Likert's "System 4" management style is:

  • AExploitative authoritative
  • BBenevolent authoritative
  • CConsultative
  • DParticipative
View solution
Correct Option: D
System 4 = participative — Likert's most effective.
Q 17 Transactional Medium

Transactional leadership relies primarily on:

  • AContingent reward and management by exception
  • BCharisma and vision
  • CServant orientation
  • DFollowers' higher-order needs
View solution
Correct Option: A
Exchange — reward for performance.
Q 18 Path-goal behaviour Hard

In House's path-goal theory, "achievement-oriented" behaviour is most useful when:

  • ATask is repetitive and follower is stressed
  • BFollower is inexperienced and task is ambiguous
  • CTask is challenging and follower is capable
  • DTask is simple and follower is unwilling
View solution
Correct Option: C
Set high standards for capable followers tackling challenging work.
Q 19 LMX Hard

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory distinguishes between:

  • ATask and relationship leaders
  • BIn-group and out-group followers of a leader
  • CCharismatic and non-charismatic leaders
  • DFormal and informal leadership
View solution
Correct Option: B
Graen's LMX — different exchange quality with in-group vs out-group.
Q 20 Trait Medium

Across modern Big-Five research, the trait most strongly predicting leadership emergence is:

  • AAgreeableness
  • BExtraversion
  • CNeuroticism
  • DConscientiousness
View solution
Correct Option: B
Extraversion predicts who *emerges*; conscientiousness more strongly tied to *effectiveness*.

22.9 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Leadership = process of influencing a group toward a shared goal. Management vs leadership — management copes with complexity, leadership with change.
  • Trait theory — Big Five revival. Extraversion predicts emergence; Conscientiousness predicts effectiveness.
  • Behavioural theories: Lewin (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire); Ohio State (initiating structure × consideration); Michigan / Likert (production vs employee orientation; Systems 1-4); Blake-Mouton Grid (9,9 team).
  • Contingency theories:
    • Fiedler — three situational variables × LPC trait. Task-oriented best in very favourable or very unfavourable settings.
    • Hersey-Blanchard — follower readiness (R1-R4) → Telling, Selling, Participating, Delegating.
    • House path-goal — directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented. Based on Vroom’s expectancy.
    • Vroom-Yetton-Jago — five decision styles AI, AII, CI, CII, GII.
  • Neo-charismatic: Burns/Bass transformational vs transactional. Bass’s 4 I’s: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualised consideration.
  • Modern: servant (Greenleaf), authentic (George), Level 5 (Collins), ethical (Brown), LMX (Graen — in/out-group), shared/distributed leadership, EI (Goleman).
  • Communication process — 8 elements: sender → encoding → message → channel → decoding → receiver → feedback; noise distorts.
  • Direction: downward, upward, horizontal, diagonal.
  • Five networks: chain, wheel (most centralised), Y, circle, all-channel.
  • Davis’s grapevine patterns: single strand, gossip, probability, cluster (most common).
  • Barriers: physical, semantic, psychological, organisational, cultural.
  • Non-verbal: kinesics (body), proxemics (space), paralanguage (tone), chronemics (time), haptics (touch).