flowchart TB M[Theories of Motivation] M --> C[Content Theories<br/>What motivates?] M --> P[Process Theories<br/>How does motivation work?] C --> M1[Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs] C --> M2[Alderfer: ERG] C --> M3[Herzberg: Two-Factor] C --> M4[McClelland: Three Needs] C --> M5[McGregor: Theory X & Y] P --> P1[Vroom: Expectancy] P --> P2[Adams: Equity] P --> P3[Locke: Goal-Setting] P --> P4[Porter-Lawler] P --> P5[Deci-Ryan: Self-Determination] style M fill:#E8F0FE,stroke:#1A73E8 style C fill:#FFF3E0,stroke:#E65100 style P fill:#E6F4EA,stroke:#137333
19 Attitude and Motivation
This chapter covers two of the most-taught concepts in OB. Attitudes are the evaluative stances people bring to work — towards the job, the boss, the firm, the customer. Motivation is the why behind effort: why people work at all, why they work harder on some tasks than others, and why they stay or leave.
19.1 Attitudes
19.1.1 What is an Attitude?
Gordon Allport defined an attitude as “a mental and neural state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations to which it is related”. Stephen Robbins offers a working OB definition: “evaluative statements — favourable or unfavourable — concerning objects, people or events” (robbins2018ob?).
Attitudes have a clear structure. The classical ABC model identifies three components.
TipThree Components of an Attitude (ABC Model)
| Component | What it covers | Example |
|---|---|---|
| A — Affective | Feelings, emotions | “I dislike my supervisor” |
| B — Behavioural | Intention to act | “I plan to look for another job” |
| C — Cognitive | Beliefs, opinions, evaluations | “My supervisor gave a colleague a promotion I deserved” |
The three components usually align — but not always. The gap between them is the source of much organisational dysfunction.
19.1.2 Major Work Attitudes
Four work attitudes account for most of OB’s attention.
TipFour Major Work Attitudes
| Attitude | What it captures |
|---|---|
| Job satisfaction | Positive feeling about one’s job from an evaluation of its characteristics |
| Job involvement | Degree to which one psychologically identifies with the job and considers performance important to self-worth |
| Organisational commitment | Identification with, involvement in, and emotional attachment to the firm |
| Employee engagement | Cognitive, emotional and behavioural investment in one’s work role |
19.1.3 Meyer and Allen’s Three-Component Model of Commitment
Organisational commitment itself has three sub-components, set out in John Meyer and Natalie Allen’s classic 1991 model (meyer1991?).
TipMeyer & Allen’s Three Components of Commitment
| Component | Why the employee stays |
|---|---|
| Affective commitment | “I want to stay” — emotional attachment to the firm |
| Continuance commitment | “I have to stay” — perceived cost of leaving |
| Normative commitment | “I ought to stay” — felt obligation to the firm |
The healthiest commitment profile is high affective and normative, with low continuance — the employee stays out of choice and obligation, not because she is trapped.
19.1.4 Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Leon Festinger’s 1957 cognitive dissonance theory explains how people respond when their attitudes and behaviour are inconsistent (festinger1957?). Dissonance is psychologically uncomfortable; the person seeks to reduce it. The three classical paths are: change the attitude, change the behaviour, or change the perceived importance of the inconsistency.
A salesperson who believes a product is poor but continues to sell it experiences dissonance. She can resolve it by upgrading her view of the product, quitting the sales job, or minimising the moral weight of selling a poor product. Most people choose the easiest of the three.
19.1.5 Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is the most-studied attitude in OB. Two instruments dominate measurement: the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ).
Determinants of Job Satisfaction
TipMajor Determinants of Job Satisfaction
| Determinant | What it covers |
|---|---|
| Mentally challenging work | Job allows skill use and offers variety |
| Equitable rewards | Pay and promotion seen as fair |
| Supportive working conditions | Safe, comfortable, conducive |
| Supportive colleagues | Cooperation, friendship, respect |
| Person-job fit | Match between abilities, interests and the job |
| Personality | Stable individual disposition (some people are simply more satisfied) |
Effects of Job Satisfaction
TipWhat Job Satisfaction Influences
| Outcome | Direction of effect |
|---|---|
| Productivity | Modest positive correlation, stronger at the unit level |
| Turnover | Strong negative correlation |
| Absenteeism | Moderate negative correlation |
| Organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) | Strong positive correlation |
| Customer satisfaction | Positive correlation, especially in service work |
| Workplace deviance | Negative correlation |
19.1.6 Hirschman’s EVLN Model — Responses to Dissatisfaction
Albert Hirschman’s Exit, Voice, Loyalty, Neglect framework, adapted for OB, captures the four ways an employee can respond to dissatisfaction.
TipFour Responses to Dissatisfaction (EVLN)
| Response | Direction | Constructive? |
|---|---|---|
| Exit | Active | Destructive |
| Voice | Active | Constructive |
| Loyalty | Passive | Constructive |
| Neglect | Passive | Destructive |
Mature firms design HR systems to encourage voice over exit and neglect.
19.1.7 Values
Milton Rokeach distinguished two kinds of values (rokeach1973?): terminal values (desired end-states of existence — happiness, freedom, equality) and instrumental values (preferred modes of behaviour — honesty, ambition, courage). Values are stable, broad and enduring; they sit at the deepest layer of the attitude system. Schwartz’s later framework (chapter 15) extended Rokeach’s typology globally.
19.2 Motivation
19.2.1 What is Motivation?
Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal (robbins2018ob?). The three elements are diagnostic — intensity (how hard), direction (towards what), persistence (for how long).
TipThree Elements of Motivation
| Element | What it asks |
|---|---|
| Intensity | How hard a person tries |
| Direction | Whether the effort is channelled towards organisational goals |
| Persistence | How long the effort is maintained |
19.2.2 Content Theories vs Process Theories
Theories of motivation divide into two families. Content theories ask what motivates people — which needs, drives or rewards push them. Process theories ask how motivation works — what cognitive and behavioural mechanisms link effort to outcomes.
19.3 Content Theories
19.3.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow’s 1943 paper “A Theory of Human Motivation” proposed that human needs sit in a hierarchy of five levels, with lower needs pre-potent — that is, dominant until satisfied, after which higher needs emerge (maslow1943?).
TipMaslow’s Five Levels of Needs
| Level | Need | Workplace expression |
|---|---|---|
| 5 | Self-actualisation | Realising one’s potential; growth, creativity |
| 4 | Esteem | Recognition, status, achievement, autonomy |
| 3 | Social / belongingness | Friendship, affection, acceptance |
| 2 | Safety | Job security, safe working conditions, benefits |
| 1 | Physiological | Basic survival — food, water, shelter, wages for these |
Needs at the bottom four are deficiency needs (lacking them produces motivation); self-actualisation is a growth need (engagement deepens with satisfaction). The model’s strength is its intuitive appeal; its weakness is the lack of strong empirical support for the strict hierarchy.
19.3.2 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer’s 1969 ERG theory collapses Maslow’s five levels into three — Existence, Relatedness, Growth — and removes the strict hierarchy. Multiple needs can operate simultaneously, and frustration at one level can produce regression to a lower one (the frustration-regression hypothesis).
TipAlderfer’s ERG Theory
| ERG need | Maslow equivalent |
|---|---|
| Existence | Physiological + Safety |
| Relatedness | Social + part of Esteem |
| Growth | Self-actualisation + part of Esteem |
19.3.3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation–Hygiene theory (1959) drew a sharp distinction between two kinds of factors. Motivators produce satisfaction; their absence produces lack of satisfaction (not dissatisfaction). Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction; their absence produces dissatisfaction, but their presence produces only neutral feelings, not satisfaction (herzberg1959?).
TipHerzberg’s Motivators and Hygiene Factors
| Motivators (Satisfiers) | Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfiers) |
|---|---|
| Achievement | Company policy and administration |
| Recognition | Supervision |
| Work itself | Working conditions |
| Responsibility | Salary |
| Advancement | Interpersonal relationships |
| Growth | Status, security |
The contentious implication: salary is a hygiene factor. Pay people unfairly and they will be dissatisfied; pay them fairly and they will be neutral, not motivated. Motivators come from the work itself.
19.3.4 McClelland’s Three-Needs Theory
David McClelland identified three socially-acquired needs that operate alongside the basic physiological ones (mcclelland1961?).
TipMcClelland’s Three Needs (n-Ach, n-Aff, n-Pow)
| Need | Meaning | Likely role fit |
|---|---|---|
| Need for Achievement (nAch) | Drive to excel and accomplish challenging goals | Sales, entrepreneur, individual contributor |
| Need for Affiliation (nAff) | Desire for close interpersonal relationships | Customer service, teaching, helping roles |
| Need for Power (nPow) | Desire to influence and control others | Leadership, especially institutional power |
McClelland argued that the best managers are typically high in nPow (especially socialised power) and low in nAff — they want influence over outcomes, not popularity. Achievement is essential for individual contributors but is not, by itself, a leadership predictor.
19.3.5 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor’s The Human Side of Enterprise (1960) framed two contrasting sets of assumptions managers hold about workers (mcgregor1960?).
TipMcGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
| Assumption | Theory X | Theory Y |
|---|---|---|
| Attitude to work | People dislike work and will avoid it | People naturally seek meaningful work |
| Direction needed | Must be coerced, controlled, threatened | Will exercise self-direction in pursuit of goals to which they are committed |
| Responsibility | Avoided whenever possible | Sought when conditions are right |
| Creativity | Concentrated in a few | Widely distributed in the population |
McGregor’s central insight is that managers’ assumptions become self-fulfilling. Treat people as Theory X and they will behave accordingly; treat them as Theory Y and a different set of behaviours will emerge.
19.4 Process Theories
19.4.1 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Victor Vroom’s 1964 Work and Motivation gave the field its most cited process theory (vroom1964?). Vroom argued that motivation is the product of three perceptions.
TipVroom’s Expectancy Theory — V × I × E
| Component | Question it answers |
|---|---|
| Expectancy (E) | “If I put in effort, will I achieve the performance level?” |
| Instrumentality (I) | “If I achieve the performance, will I get the reward?” |
| Valence (V) | “Do I value the reward?” |
Motivation = V × I × E. The multiplicative form is the key insight: if any one of the three is zero, motivation is zero. A reward you do not value (V = 0), or a reward unlikely to follow performance (I = 0), or a performance unlikely to follow effort (E = 0) — any of the three kills motivation.
19.4.2 Adams’s Equity Theory
J. Stacy Adams’s 1965 equity theory argues that people compare their ratio of outcomes to inputs with that of a comparison other (adams1965?).
TipAdams’s Equity Comparison
| State | Ratio comparison |
|---|---|
| Equity | O_self / I_self = O_other / I_other |
| Under-reward | O_self / I_self < O_other / I_other |
| Over-reward | O_self / I_self > O_other / I_other |
When inequity is perceived, the person responds in one of several ways: change inputs, change outcomes, distort perceptions of one’s own or the comparison other’s ratio, change the comparison other, or leave. Under-reward inequity produces stronger responses than over-reward.
The organisational justice literature extends Adams’s theory into three sub-types of justice: distributive (outcome fairness), procedural (process fairness), and interactional (interpersonal treatment).
19.4.3 Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
Edwin Locke’s goal-setting theory, with Gary Latham, is the most empirically validated theory in OB (locke1990?). Two findings are central: specific goals produce higher performance than vague ones (“do your best”), and difficult goals — when accepted — produce higher performance than easy ones.
TipConditions Under Which Goals Motivate
| Condition | What it adds |
|---|---|
| Specificity | “Increase sales by 20% this quarter” beats “do your best” |
| Difficulty | Difficult goals — within reach — beat easy ones |
| Acceptance | The person must commit to the goal |
| Feedback | Progress information enables self-correction |
| Self-efficacy | Belief in one’s capability to achieve the goal |
| Task complexity | For complex tasks, sub-goals and learning goals work better than outcome goals |
Locke’s theory underwrites Management by Objectives (Drucker), OKRs and most modern performance-management systems.
19.4.4 The Porter–Lawler Model
Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler’s 1968 model is an extension of Vroom’s expectancy theory, adding the role of abilities, role perception and intrinsic vs extrinsic rewards. The key contribution: satisfaction follows performance, not the other way round. Performance produces rewards, which produce satisfaction, which feeds back into the next motivational cycle.
TipThe Porter–Lawler Model in Five Links
| Link | What it says |
|---|---|
| Effort = Value of reward × Effort-to-reward expectancy | Effort is a function of perceived expectancy and valence |
| Effort + Abilities + Role perception → Performance | Effort alone is not enough |
| Performance → Rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic) | Performance produces both kinds of rewards |
| Rewards → Satisfaction | But only when seen as equitable |
| Satisfaction → Next cycle’s expectancy | Closes the loop |
19.4.5 Self-Determination Theory
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory (SDT) argues that humans have three innate psychological needs: autonomy (sense of control), competence (mastery) and relatedness (connection). Motivation is strongest when all three are satisfied. SDT also distinguishes intrinsic motivation (the activity itself is rewarding) from extrinsic motivation (the activity is a means to a separable end).
A controversial finding from SDT: extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation for already-interesting tasks — the over-justification effect. Pay people for what they used to enjoy doing, and they may stop enjoying it.
19.5 Comparing the Theories
A working manager treats the theories as complementary, not competing. Each illuminates a different facet of motivation.
TipQuick Map of the Major Motivation Theories
| Theory | What it answers | Headline practical implication |
|---|---|---|
| Maslow | What needs people have, in what order | Different rewards motivate at different career stages |
| Alderfer ERG | A more flexible needs hierarchy | Don’t assume strict step-wise progression |
| Herzberg two-factor | Why hygiene improvements often fail to motivate | Pay fixes dissatisfaction; growth produces satisfaction |
| McClelland | What three social needs distinguish people | Match people to roles by their dominant need |
| McGregor X / Y | What managerial assumptions do | Theory Y assumptions release more performance |
| Vroom Expectancy | How motivation arises from perceptions | Strengthen all three — V, I, E |
| Adams Equity | How perceived fairness shapes effort | Pay equitably; fix process and interaction, not just outcome |
| Locke Goal-Setting | How specific, difficult, accepted goals motivate | Set hard but reachable goals with feedback |
| Porter–Lawler | How performance, rewards and satisfaction link | Satisfaction follows performance, not the other way |
| Deci–Ryan SDT | What intrinsic motivation requires | Build autonomy, competence, relatedness; don’t over-reward intrinsic work |
19.6 Practice Questions
Eight questions to test the chapter. Each card hides the answer — click Show answer to reveal it.
Q1
The three components of an attitude
The three components of an attitude in the ABC model are:
AAction, Belief, Commitment
BAffective, Behavioural, Cognitive
CAttitude, Behaviour, Choice
DAntecedent, Behaviour, Consequence
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Affective (feelings), Behavioural (intention), Cognitive (beliefs).
Q2
Match the motivation theorist with the
Match the motivation theorist with the contribution:
| Theorist | Contribution | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| (i) | Vroom | (a) | Two-factor theory |
| (ii) | Adams | (b) | Goal-setting theory |
| (iii) | Locke | (c) | Equity theory |
| (iv) | Herzberg | (d) | Expectancy theory |
A(i)-(d), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
C(i)-(c), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(b)
D(i)-(b), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(c)
Show answer
Correct answer
A. (i)-(d), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
Q3
Meyer and Allen's three components of
Meyer and Allen's three components of organisational commitment are:
AAffective, Continuance, Normative
BAffective, Behavioural, Cognitive
CCognitive, Continuance, Cultural
DActive, Passive, Loyal
Show answer
Correct answer
A. Want to (affective), have to (continuance), ought to (normative).
Q4
In Vroom's expectancy theory, instrumentality is
In Vroom's expectancy theory, instrumentality is the perception that:
AEffort will lead to performance
BPerformance will lead to reward
CThe reward is valued
DThe task is achievable
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Instrumentality is the link between performance and reward.
Q5
Herzberg argued that salary is best
Herzberg argued that salary is best classified as a:
AMotivator
BHygiene factor
CSelf-actualisation factor
DGrowth need
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Salary is a hygiene factor — its absence produces dissatisfaction; its presence produces neutrality, not satisfaction.
Q6
Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory explains
Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory explains:
AThe hierarchy of human needs
BThe discomfort produced by inconsistent attitudes and behaviours, and the search for consistency
CThe expectancy–performance link
DThe four schedules of reinforcement
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Dissonance is the discomfort of holding inconsistent cognitions.
Q7
McClelland argued that the best managers
McClelland argued that the best managers, on average, score:
AHigh on n-Achievement, low on n-Power
BHigh on n-Affiliation, high on n-Power
CHigh on n-Power, low on n-Affiliation
DEqual on all three
Show answer
Correct answer
C. Effective managers tend to be high on socialised n-Power and lower on n-Affiliation.
Q8
Locke's goal-setting theory predicts that perfo...
Locke's goal-setting theory predicts that performance is highest when goals are:
AVague and easy
BSpecific and difficult, accepted by the performer, with feedback
CSet by senior management without consultation
DHeld secret from the performer
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Specificity, difficulty, acceptance and feedback are the conditions for goal effectiveness.
ImportantQuick recall
- Attitude ABC: Affective, Behavioural, Cognitive.
- Four major work attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement, organisational commitment, employee engagement.
- Meyer & Allen: affective (want to), continuance (have to), normative (ought to) commitment.
- Festinger — cognitive dissonance: discomfort drives consistency-seeking.
- EVLN responses to dissatisfaction: Exit (active-destructive), Voice (active-constructive), Loyalty (passive-constructive), Neglect (passive-destructive).
- Rokeach: terminal vs instrumental values.
- Motivation has three elements: intensity, direction, persistence.
- Content theories: Maslow (5-level hierarchy), Alderfer (ERG, with frustration-regression), Herzberg (Motivators vs Hygiene), McClelland (nAch, nAff, nPow), McGregor (X / Y).
- Process theories: Vroom (V × I × E — multiplicative), Adams (equity, distributive / procedural / interactional justice), Locke (specific + difficult + accepted + feedback), Porter–Lawler (performance → reward → satisfaction → next cycle), Deci–Ryan (autonomy + competence + relatedness; over-justification effect).