20  Attitude and Motivation: ABC Components, Cognitive Dissonance, Job Satisfaction and the Motivation Theories of Maslow, Herzberg, McClelland, Vroom, Adams, Locke and Porter-Lawler

20.1 What Moves People at Work

A worker’s behaviour at the office is rarely produced by skill alone. Two related forces are decisive — what they feel about the work (attitudes) and how much they want to put effort into it (motivation). Attitudes give the direction (toward or away from); motivation gives the energy. This chapter covers the structure of attitudes, the classical theories of job satisfaction and the major motivation frameworks that fill any HRM or OB syllabus.

20.2 A · Attitudes

20.2.1 Definition

An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond consistently — favourably or unfavourably — toward a person, object, idea or situation. Attitudes are evaluations carrying cognitive, affective and behavioural elements.

20.2.2 The ABC Model

TipThe ABC Components of an Attitude
Component What it is Example (toward overtime)
A — Affective Feeling “I dislike staying late”
B — Behavioural Intention to act “I will refuse extra shifts”
C — Cognitive Belief “Overtime harms health and family life”
NoteMnemonic — ABC for Affect, Behaviour, Cognition

The classic acronym A-B-C captures the three sides of every attitude. NTA stems often ask which side a given statement reflects.

20.2.3 Sources of Attitudes

  • Family and early socialisation.
  • Peer group and reference groups.
  • Experience — direct contact with the object of the attitude.
  • Media and culture.
  • Personality and biology.

20.2.5 Meyer and Allen’s Three Components of Commitment

TipMeyer-Allen — Three-Component Commitment
Component What it captures
Affective “I want to stay” — emotional attachment
Continuance “I need to stay” — costs of leaving
Normative “I ought to stay” — moral obligation

20.2.6 Cognitive Dissonance

Leon Festinger (1957) described the discomfort a person feels when behaviour and belief, or two beliefs, conflict. The person tries to reduce the dissonance by:

  • Changing the behaviour.
  • Changing the belief.
  • Adding new cognitions (“everyone does it”).
  • Minimising the importance of the inconsistency.
NotePYQ anchor — Festinger 1957

Cognitive dissonance = Festinger’s 1957 idea. Discomfort from inconsistency between behaviour and belief drives change in one of them.

20.2.7 Changing Attitudes — Kelman’s Three Processes

Herbert Kelman distinguished three routes through which attitudes change:

TipKelman’s Three Processes
Process Driver Depth
Compliance Reward or punishment Shallow; lasts while incentive lasts
Identification Liking and similarity with the source Moderate
Internalisation Value-congruent persuasion Deep; survives the source

20.3 B · Job Satisfaction

20.3.1 Definition

Edwin Locke defined job satisfaction as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences.”

20.3.2 Determinants

  • Mentally challenging work.
  • Equitable rewards.
  • Supportive working conditions.
  • Supportive colleagues.
  • Personality–job fit (Holland).
  • Good supervision.
  • Voice and participation in decisions.

20.3.3 Consequences — The EVLN Model

When satisfaction declines, employees respond in one of four ways (Rusbult & Lowery, building on Hirschman):

TipEVLN — Four Responses to Dissatisfaction
Response Active or Passive Constructive or Destructive
Exit Active Destructive
Voice Active Constructive
Loyalty Passive Constructive
Neglect Passive Destructive

20.3.4 Measuring Job Satisfaction

  • Job Descriptive Index (JDI) — five facets.
  • Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) — 20 facets.
  • Single global rating — one or two questions.

20.4 C · Motivation

20.4.1 Definition

Motivation is the set of forces that initiate, direct and sustain behaviour toward a goal. Robbins frames it as the willingness to exert effort toward an organisational goal, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy individual needs.

20.4.2 Two Families of Theory

TipContent vs Process Theories
Family Question Theories
Content What motivates? Maslow, Alderfer’s ERG, Herzberg, McClelland
Process How does motivation work? Vroom (expectancy), Adams (equity), Locke (goal-setting), Porter-Lawler 

flowchart TB
  M[Motivation<br/>theories]
  M --> C[Content<br/>WHAT]
  M --> P[Process<br/>HOW]
  C --> Ma[Maslow]
  C --> Al[Alderfer ERG]
  C --> He[Herzberg]
  C --> Mc[McClelland]
  P --> V[Vroom expectancy]
  P --> Ad[Adams equity]
  P --> L[Locke goal-setting]
  P --> PL[Porter-Lawler]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

20.4.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943)

TipMaslow’s Five Levels
Level Need
5 — Self-actualisation Achieving one’s full potential
4 — Esteem Self-respect, status, recognition
3 — Social (belongingness) Friendship, love, affiliation
2 — Safety Security, stability, protection
1 — Physiological Food, water, shelter, sleep

Maslow’s two key claims: lower needs dominate until reasonably met, and a satisfied need is no longer a strong motivator.

20.4.4 Alderfer’s ERG Theory (1969)

Three need categories, with two flexibility features Maslow’s hierarchy lacked.

TipAlderfer’s ERG Categories
Category Maps roughly to Maslow
E — Existence Physiological + safety
R — Relatedness Social + external esteem
G — Growth Self-actualisation + internal esteem

Alderfer added the frustration-regression principle — if a higher need is blocked, a lower need re-asserts itself.

20.4.5 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (1959)

Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation to Work study of accountants and engineers in Pittsburgh produced the two-factor (hygiene-motivator) theory.

TipHerzberg’s Two Sets of Factors
Type Examples Effect
Hygiene factors (extrinsic) Pay, supervision, company policy, working conditions, interpersonal relations Their absence creates dissatisfaction; their presence merely removes dissatisfaction
Motivators (intrinsic) Achievement, recognition, responsibility, work itself, advancement, growth Their presence creates satisfaction and drives motivation
NotePYQ trap — Opposite of satisfaction is NOT dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s signature insight: the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction; the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction. Hygiene and motivator factors operate on two separate continua.

Herzberg’s logic became the academic basis of job enrichment.

20.4.6 McClelland’s Theory of Learned Needs (1961)

David McClelland argued three needs are learned through life experience and culture.

TipMcClelland’s Three Learned Needs
Need Description High scorers prefer
n-Ach (Achievement) Drive to do well against a standard Moderately challenging goals, fast feedback, personal responsibility
n-Aff (Affiliation) Drive for warm, friendly relationships Cooperative, harmonious settings
n-Pow (Power) Drive to influence and control others Influence-rich, status-laden roles

McClelland measured needs through the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) — a projective tool.

20.4.7 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964)

Victor Vroom’s model is the textbook process theory of motivation.

TipVroom’s Three Components
Component Question it answers
Expectancy (E) “Will my effort lead to performance?”
Instrumentality (I) “Will performance lead to rewards?”
Valence (V) “Are the rewards desirable to me?”
TipVroom’s Equation

Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence

Because the three are multiplied, if any one is zero, motivation is zero. The HR implication: ensure capable people, link performance to reward, and offer rewards employees actually want.

20.4.8 Adams’s Equity Theory (1963)

J. Stacy Adams argued people compare their outcome-to-input ratio with that of a referent. Perceived inequity triggers tension and behavioural change.

TipAdams’s Equity Comparison
Comparison Perception
O/I (self) = O/I (referent) Equity — content
O/I (self) < O/I (referent) Under-reward — anger, reduced effort, complaint
O/I (self) > O/I (referent) Over-reward — guilt, increased effort or rationalisation

Adams identified four referent categories — self-inside, self-outside, other-inside, other-outside.

20.4.9 Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory (1968)

Edwin Locke and Gary Latham showed that specific, difficult goals, accepted by the person and accompanied by feedback, produce higher performance than vague “do your best” goals.

TipLocke’s Goal-Setting Conditions
Condition Effect
Specific goal Beats general goal
Difficult but attainable goal Beats easy goal
Acceptance / commitment Required for difficulty to motivate
Feedback Allows mid-course correction
Self-efficacy Strengthens persistence
Task complexity moderates Simple tasks gain more than complex ones

Goal-setting is the conceptual basis of MBO and SMART goals.

20.4.10 Porter-Lawler Model (1968)

Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler integrated Vroom’s expectancy ideas with rewards and satisfaction in a fuller model.

TipPorter-Lawler’s Causal Sequence
Step Element
1 Effort depends on perceived value of reward × perceived probability of effort leading to reward
2 Performance depends on effort × ability and role perception
3 Rewards (intrinsic + extrinsic) follow performance
4 Perceived equity of rewards determines…
5 Satisfaction — which in turn updates the perceived value of rewards

The model reversed the older “satisfaction → performance” intuition by suggesting performance leads to satisfaction through rewards.

20.4.11 Modern Process Theories Worth Knowing

TipNewer Process Theories
Theory Author Idea
Self-determination theory Deci & Ryan Three innate needs — autonomy, competence, relatedness — drive intrinsic motivation
Cognitive evaluation theory Deci Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation for interesting tasks
Self-efficacy theory Bandura Belief in one’s capability to perform
Job characteristics model Hackman & Oldham Motivation flows from five job dimensions (covered in T&D chapter)
Reinforcement theory Skinner Consequences drive behaviour (covered in Learning chapter)

20.5 Practice Questions

Q 01 ABC Easy

"I dislike working late nights" is most clearly which component of an attitude?

  • ACognitive
  • BAffective
  • CBehavioural
  • DNormative
View solution
Correct Option: B
"Dislike" = a feeling = affective.
Q 02 Cognitive dissonance Medium

Cognitive dissonance theory was proposed by:

  • AFestinger
  • BMaslow
  • CHerzberg
  • DKelman
View solution
Correct Option: A
Leon Festinger, 1957.
Q 03 Meyer-Allen Hard

Meyer and Allen's three components of organisational commitment are:

  • AAffective, continuance, normative
  • BCognitive, behavioural, affective
  • CInternal, external, relational
  • DCompliance, identification, internalisation
View solution
Correct Option: A
Affective (want), continuance (need), normative (ought).
Q 04 Maslow top Easy

At the top of Maslow's hierarchy is:

  • AEsteem
  • BSafety
  • CSelf-actualisation
  • DBelonging
View solution
Correct Option: C
Self-actualisation is level 5.
Q 05 Herzberg hygiene Medium

In Herzberg's two-factor theory, salary is best classified as a:

  • AMotivator
  • BHygiene factor
  • CSelf-actualisation need
  • DEsteem need
View solution
Correct Option: B
Salary is extrinsic — a hygiene factor.
Q 06 McClelland Hard

McClelland measured the achievement need primarily using:

  • A16-PF
  • BThematic Apperception Test
  • CMBTI
  • DRorschach
View solution
Correct Option: B
TAT — projective test.
Q 07 Vroom formula Medium

In Vroom's expectancy theory, motivation is the product of:

  • AEffort + Performance + Reward
  • BExpectancy × Instrumentality × Valence
  • CNeed × Drive × Goal
  • DAbility + Motivation + Opportunity
View solution
Correct Option: B
E × I × V.
Q 08 Adams Medium

Adams's equity theory says employees compare:

  • ATheir effort with their ability
  • BTheir outcome-to-input ratio with that of a referent
  • CTheir pay with the cost of living
  • DTheir tasks with their colleagues' tasks
View solution
Correct Option: B
Outcome-to-input ratio vs referent.
Q 09 Locke Medium

Goal-setting theory says highest performance follows from goals that are:

  • AVague and easy
  • BSpecific, difficult, accepted, with feedback
  • CSet unilaterally by management
  • DNegotiated with the union
View solution
Correct Option: B
Specific + difficult + accepted + feedback.
Q 10 Match Hard

Match the theory with its author:

(i) Two-factor theory (a) Vroom
(ii) Equity theory (b) Herzberg
(iii) Expectancy theory (c) McClelland
(iv) Learned-needs theory (d) Adams
  • A(i)-(b), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(c)
  • B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
  • C(i)-(c), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
  • D(i)-(d), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(b)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Herzberg-two-factor; Adams-equity; Vroom-expectancy; McClelland-learned needs.
Q 11 ERG Medium

A distinctive feature of Alderfer's ERG theory, absent in Maslow, is:

  • AA strict hierarchy
  • BThe frustration-regression principle
  • CA focus on physiological needs
  • DReliance on TAT
View solution
Correct Option: B
If a higher need is blocked, the next lower need re-asserts itself.
Q 12 Porter-Lawler Hard

A key insight of the Porter-Lawler model is that:

  • ASatisfaction always leads to performance
  • BPerformance leads to satisfaction through rewards perceived as equitable
  • CMoney is the only motivator
  • DMotivation requires no rewards
View solution
Correct Option: B
Performance → rewards → equity check → satisfaction.
Q 13 Kelman Hard

Attitude change driven by adopting the source's values as one's own is termed:

  • ACompliance
  • BIdentification
  • CInternalisation
  • DConformity
View solution
Correct Option: C
Internalisation — deepest change, survives the source.
Q 14 EVLN Medium

In the EVLN model of responses to dissatisfaction, "Voice" is best described as:

  • AActive and destructive
  • BActive and constructive
  • CPassive and constructive
  • DPassive and destructive
View solution
Correct Option: B
Voice = active + constructive.
Q 15 Herzberg sat Hard

According to Herzberg, the opposite of "satisfaction" is:

  • ADissatisfaction
  • BNo satisfaction
  • CDisengagement
  • DTurnover
View solution
Correct Option: B
Herzberg's signature claim — separate continua.
Q 16 Job involvement Medium

Identifying psychologically with one's job is best termed:

  • AJob satisfaction
  • BOrganisational commitment
  • CJob involvement
  • DEmployee engagement
View solution
Correct Option: C
Job involvement = psychological identification with the job.
Q 17 Self-determination Hard

Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan) describes three innate psychological needs. They are:

  • AAutonomy, competence, relatedness
  • BAchievement, affiliation, power
  • CExistence, relatedness, growth
  • DSafety, esteem, self-actualisation
View solution
Correct Option: A
Autonomy, competence, relatedness.
Q 18 Cognitive evaluation Hard

Cognitive evaluation theory warns that:

  • AAll rewards are equally motivating
  • BExtrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation for interesting tasks
  • CMoney is the only motivator
  • DIntrinsic rewards are irrelevant
View solution
Correct Option: B
Extrinsic reward can crowd out intrinsic interest.
Q 19 Maslow content Medium

Maslow's hierarchy is classified as a:

  • AProcess theory
  • BContent theory
  • CReinforcement theory
  • DEquity theory
View solution
Correct Option: B
Maslow concerns *what* motivates — content theory.
Q 20 Locke definition Medium

Job satisfaction was defined as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job" by:

  • AEdwin Locke
  • BFrederick Herzberg
  • CStephen Robbins
  • DAbraham Maslow
View solution
Correct Option: A
Edwin Locke.

20.6 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Attitude = learned predisposition; three components — ABC (Affective, Behavioural, Cognitive).
  • Three job attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement, organisational commitment.
  • Meyer-Allen commitment — three components: affective (want), continuance (need), normative (ought).
  • Cognitive dissonance — Festinger (1957) — discomfort from belief-behaviour conflict drives change.
  • Kelman’s three attitude-change processes: compliance, identification, internalisation (deepest).
  • Job satisfaction (Locke) = pleasurable emotional state from job appraisal. Measure: JDI, MSQ.
  • EVLN responses to dissatisfaction: Exit (active-destructive), Voice (active-constructive), Loyalty (passive-constructive), Neglect (passive-destructive).
  • Motivation theories — two families: content (what — Maslow, ERG, Herzberg, McClelland) and process (how — Vroom, Adams, Locke, Porter-Lawler).
  • Maslow’s five needs: physiological → safety → social → esteem → self-actualisation.
  • Alderfer ERG: Existence-Relatedness-Growth; frustration-regression.
  • Herzberg two-factor: Hygiene (extrinsic — pay, supervision, conditions) prevents dissatisfaction; Motivators (intrinsic — achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, growth) produce satisfaction. Opposite of satisfaction = no satisfaction.
  • McClelland’s three learned needs: n-Ach, n-Aff, n-Pow. Measured by TAT.
  • Vroom expectancy: Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence — multiplicative.
  • Adams equity: outcome-to-input ratio vs referent → over-reward / equity / under-reward.
  • Locke goal-setting: specific + difficult + accepted + feedback. Basis of MBO and SMART goals.
  • Porter-Lawler: effort → performance → reward → perceived equity → satisfaction (performance leads to satisfaction).
  • Deci & Ryan SDT — autonomy, competence, relatedness.