flowchart LR A[Analyse<br/>Needs assessment] --> D[Design<br/>Objectives & methods] D --> DV[Develop<br/>Materials & exercises] DV --> I[Implement<br/>Deliver the training] I --> E[Evaluate<br/>Did it work?] E -. Feedback .-> A style A fill:#E3F2FD,stroke:#1565C0 style D fill:#FFF3E0,stroke:#E65100 style DV fill:#E8F5E9,stroke:#2E7D32 style I fill:#F3E5F5,stroke:#6A1B9A style E fill:#FCE4EC,stroke:#AD1457
7 Training and Development
7.1 Training, Education and Development
The three words are often used interchangeably. They describe overlapping but distinct activities, and a manager who confuses them ends up paying for the wrong programme.
TipTraining vs Education vs Development
| Dimension | Training | Education | Development |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aim | Improve performance on the current job | Build a broader knowledge base | Prepare for future responsibilities |
| Time horizon | Short | Long | Continuous |
| Content | Job-specific skills | Concepts, theory | Behaviour, judgement, perspective |
| Target | Mostly non-managerial and front-line | Mostly young, pre-career | Mostly managers and high-potentials |
| Setting | Usually inside the firm | Usually outside (school, college) | Mix of inside and outside |
| Initiator | Employer | Individual / family | Mostly employer, with employee buy-in |
A working slogan: training fixes a present skill gap; education builds capacity to learn; development prepares the whole person.
7.2 Why Training Matters
Eight practical reasons — any one of them sufficient to justify a training budget — are summarised below.
- Speed up the learning curve of new joiners; reduces the cost of inexperience.
- Improve job performance of current staff; raises productivity and quality.
- Reduce errors, accidents and waste; especially important in safety-critical roles.
- Reduce supervision required; trained staff exercise judgement.
- Improve morale and retention. Training is one of the strongest drivers of engagement.
- Equip staff for new technology — automation, AI tools, software upgrades.
- Prepare a succession pipeline for future managerial vacancies.
- Comply with legal and regulatory requirements — POSH, fire safety, anti-money-laundering, data privacy.
7.3 The Training Process — the ADDIE Model
The widely-used ADDIE framework, named for its five steps, structures most modern training programmes (goldstein2002?).
TipThe ADDIE Model
| Step | What it produces |
|---|---|
| Analyse | Training needs identified at three levels (organisation, task, person) |
| Design | Learning objectives, sequence, methods, materials |
| Develop | Lesson plans, slides, e-learning modules, exercises |
| Implement | Delivery — classroom, online, on-the-job |
| Evaluate | Reaction, learning, behaviour, results, ROI |
7.4 Training Needs Assessment — McGehee and Thayer’s Three Levels
William McGehee and Paul Thayer’s classic framework asks three different questions at three different levels of the firm — and the training plan should answer all three (mcgehee1961?).
TipThree Levels of Training Needs Assessment
| Level | Working question | Typical inputs |
|---|---|---|
| Organisation analysis | Where in the firm is training needed? | Strategy, structure, climate, scarce skills, productivity data |
| Task / operations analysis | What should the trainee learn to do the job? | Job description, KSAOs, performance standards |
| Person / individual analysis | Who needs the training, and what gap does each person carry? | Appraisal data, observation, self-report, tests |
A training programme that skips the analysis step is a solution looking for a problem.
7.5 Methods of Training
Methods divide into two big families: on-the-job (the trainee learns at work, while doing the work) and off-the-job (the trainee learns away from the workplace).
7.5.1 On-the-Job Methods
TipOn-the-Job Training Methods
| Method | What it does | Best for |
|---|---|---|
| Job instruction training (JIT) | “Tell, show, do, follow up” — four-step method | Operative, repetitive jobs |
| Coaching | One-on-one guidance from a supervisor | New entrants, performance issues |
| Mentoring | Longer-term relationship with a senior figure | High-potential talent |
| Job rotation | Planned movement across roles | Generalist trainees, future managers |
| Apprenticeship | Multi-year combination of on-job and classroom | Skilled trades, ITI streams |
| Internship / understudy | Working under a senior to learn by shadowing | Trainees, succession candidates |
| Committee assignment | Delegating real problems to a small team | Mid-level managers |
7.5.2 Off-the-Job Methods
TipOff-the-Job Training Methods
| Method | What it does |
|---|---|
| Lectures and conferences | Information transfer to a large group |
| Case study | Analysis of a written situation |
| Role-play | Trainees act out parts (sales call, grievance interview) |
| Group discussion | Structured talk on a problem or theme |
| In-basket exercise | Trainee handles a simulated set of memos and emails |
| Sensitivity (T-group) training | Unstructured group exploring its own dynamics |
| Vestibule training | A replica of the workplace built for training (cockpits, mock factory floors) |
| Programmed instruction | Self-paced, branching learning material |
| E-learning / MOOCs / micro-learning | Digital, on-demand modules |
| Simulation and games | Computer-based modelling of real situations |
| Behaviour modelling | Demonstration → practice → feedback (Bandura) |
7.6 Evaluation of Training — Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels
Donald Kirkpatrick’s 1959 model — refined in his 1998 book — remains the standard framework for evaluating any training intervention (kirkpatrick1998?).
TipKirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Training Evaluation
| Level | What it measures | Typical instrument | Strength | Limit |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Reaction | How participants felt about the programme | Smile-sheet, post-course survey | Cheap, fast | Low predictive value |
| 2. Learning | What knowledge or skill was acquired | Pre-test / post-test, role-play assessment | Direct measure of learning | Does not show transfer to the job |
| 3. Behaviour | Whether the learning is being used on the job | Manager observation, 360° feedback, follow-up survey | Real-world transfer | Time-lag, harder to attribute |
| 4. Results | Impact on organisational outcomes | Productivity, quality, sales, turnover, customer satisfaction | The “so what” question | Hardest to attribute solely to training |
Jack Phillips later added a fifth level — Return on Investment (ROI) — which compares the monetised level-4 results against the training cost (phillips1997?). Kirkpatrick’s son James and his wife further updated the model in 2016 with a New World Kirkpatrick Model that emphasises planning level 4 first and working backward.
7.7 Learning Theories Behind Training
A training designer who does not understand how adults learn ends up reinventing the same mistakes. Five strands of theory shape modern practice.
TipFive Learning Theories Relevant to Training
| Theory | Lead name | One-line takeaway |
|---|---|---|
| Classical conditioning | Ivan Pavlov | Pairing a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one creates a learned response |
| Operant conditioning | B.F. Skinner | Behaviour followed by reinforcement is repeated; behaviour followed by punishment is avoided |
| Social / observational learning | Albert Bandura | People learn by watching others — behaviour modelling in training (bandura1977?) |
| Cognitive learning | Edward Tolman, Jerome Bruner | Learning involves forming mental maps, not just stimulus-response chains |
| Andragogy (adult learning) | Malcolm Knowles | Adults learn best when they see relevance, draw on experience, and have control over the learning (knowles1990?) |
7.7.1 Knowles’s Andragogy in One Page
Adult learners differ from children in five recurring ways.
- They want to know why they have to learn something before they engage.
- They want to be treated as self-directed — not lectured at.
- They bring substantial experience that the trainer should tap into.
- They are problem-centred, not subject-centred — they want to apply learning immediately.
- They are motivated more by internal pressures (career, self-worth) than external ones.
7.7.2 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle
David Kolb’s 1984 model maps learning as a four-stage cycle that starts and ends with experience (kolb1984?).
TipKolb’s Four-Stage Experiential Learning Cycle
| Stage | What the learner does |
|---|---|
| Concrete experience | Has the experience |
| Reflective observation | Reflects on what happened |
| Abstract conceptualisation | Forms a generalisation or theory |
| Active experimentation | Tests the theory in a new situation |
Each stage privileges a different learning style — Diverger (CE + RO), Assimilator (RO + AC), Converger (AC + AE), Accommodator (AE + CE).
7.8 Management Development
Management development is the deliberate effort to improve managerial performance and prepare future managers. Where training builds skills for the current job, development builds judgement, perspective and behaviour for future and broader roles.
7.8.1 How Development Differs from Training
TipTraining vs Development
| Dimension | Training | Development |
|---|---|---|
| Focus | Specific job skill | Whole person, future roles |
| Population | Operatives and front-line | Managers and high-potentials |
| Time frame | Short, episodic | Long, continuous |
| Method bias | Demonstration, practice | Reflection, exposure, mentoring |
| Outcome measured | Skill acquired | Behaviour and capability over time |
7.8.2 Common Methods of Management Development
TipMethods of Management Development
| Method | What it does |
|---|---|
| Coaching by senior managers | Real-time feedback on real work |
| Mentoring | Long-term advisory relationship |
| Job rotation across functions | Builds breadth and cross-functional empathy |
| Action learning sets | Small group works on a real business problem under a facilitator |
| Sensitivity training (T-group) | Surfaces blind spots in interpersonal style |
| Transactional analysis (TA) | Eric Berne’s parent–adult–child model applied to manager–subordinate transactions |
| Syndicate method | Small groups produce reports on assigned topics; popular with civil-service academies |
| Case method | Discussion of complex written cases |
| Outdoor / adventure learning | Team-building through physical challenge |
| Executive education | Formal residential programmes (IIM, ISB, Harvard, INSEAD) |
| Assessment and development centres | Multi-exercise diagnosis followed by individual development plans |
7.9 Transfer of Training
Training has no organisational value unless what was learned in the classroom shows up on the job. Transfer of training is the technical name for that show-up rate, and the literature is consistent that 60–90 per cent of formal training fails to transfer in the absence of supportive conditions.
TipConditions That Improve Transfer
| Condition | What it means in practice |
|---|---|
| Trainee characteristics | Motivation, ability, self-efficacy |
| Training design | Identical elements between training and job; varied practice; clear objectives |
| Work environment | Supervisor support, opportunity to use the skill, peer encouragement, fair appraisal |
| Reinforcement | Recognition and reward when the new skill is used |
The supervisor’s role is the single biggest predictor of transfer; an enthusiastic trainee returning to a discouraging boss usually reverts to old habits within weeks.
7.10 Practice Questions
Eight questions to test the chapter. Each card hides the answer — click Show answer to reveal it.
Q1
The ADDIE model of training stands
The ADDIE model of training stands for:
AAssess, Design, Direct, Implement, Evaluate
BAnalyse, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate
CAcquire, Develop, Deliver, Improve, Establish
DAudit, Design, Deploy, Implement, Examine
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Analyse, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate.
Q2
Match the level of Kirkpatrick's evaluation
Match the level of Kirkpatrick's evaluation model with what it measures:
| Level | Measures | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| (i) | Level 1 | (a) | Behaviour change on the job |
| (ii) | Level 2 | (b) | Reaction of participants |
| (iii) | Level 3 | (c) | Organisational results |
| (iv) | Level 4 | (d) | Knowledge or skill acquired |
A(i)-(b), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(c)
B(i)-(d), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(a)
C(i)-(a), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(b)
D(i)-(c), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(d)
Show answer
Correct answer
A. (i)-(b), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(c)
Q3
Training needs are assessed at three
Training needs are assessed at three levels — organisation, task and person. This three-level model is associated with:
AKirkpatrick
BMcGehee and Thayer
CGoldstein and Ford
DBandura
Show answer
Correct answer
B. McGehee and Thayer's Training in Business and Industry (1961).
Q4
Which of the following is not
Which of the following is not an on-the-job training method?
AJob rotation
BApprenticeship
CVestibule training
DCoaching
Show answer
Correct answer
C. Vestibule training takes place in a replica of the workplace, off the job.
Q5
Malcolm Knowles's andragogy refers to the
Malcolm Knowles's andragogy refers to the:
AScience of teaching children
BArt and science of helping adults learn
CUse of programmed instruction in industry
DSet of laws on training contracts
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Andragogy contrasts with pedagogy, the teaching of children.
Q6
A trainee watches a senior salesperson
A trainee watches a senior salesperson handle a difficult customer and afterwards practises the same handling with feedback. The training method in use is:
ASensitivity training
BVestibule training
CBehaviour modelling
DProgrammed instruction
Show answer
Correct answer
C. Behaviour modelling — observation, practice, feedback — is rooted in Bandura's social-learning theory.
Q7
Jack Phillips's contribution to the Kirkpatrick
Jack Phillips's contribution to the Kirkpatrick framework is the addition of:
AA fifth level for ROI
BA new level for engagement
CA pre-test for personality
DA behavioural anchor for level 1
Show answer
Correct answer
A. Phillips added Return on Investment as a fifth level above results.
Q8
Kolb's experiential learning cycle moves through
Kolb's experiential learning cycle moves through:
APlan → Do → Check → Act
BConcrete experience → reflective observation → abstract conceptualisation → active experimentation
CAwareness → desire → knowledge → ability → reinforcement
DSensing → thinking → feeling → intuiting
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Kolb's four stages, in that order.
ImportantQuick recall
- Three sister activities: Training (current job) — Education (broad foundations) — Development (future roles).
- ADDIE: Analyse → Design → Develop → Implement → Evaluate.
- Three-level needs assessment (McGehee & Thayer): Organisation — Task — Person.
- On-the-job methods: JIT, coaching, mentoring, job rotation, apprenticeship, internship, committee.
- Off-the-job methods: lectures, case, role-play, in-basket, T-group, vestibule, programmed instruction, e-learning, simulation, behaviour modelling.
- Kirkpatrick’s four levels: Reaction → Learning → Behaviour → Results (+ Phillips’s fifth: ROI).
- Five learning theories: Classical (Pavlov) — Operant (Skinner) — Social (Bandura) — Cognitive (Tolman) — Andragogy (Knowles).
- Kolb’s cycle: Concrete experience → Reflective observation → Abstract conceptualisation → Active experimentation. Styles: Diverger, Assimilator, Converger, Accommodator.
- Transfer-of-training drivers: trainee characteristics + design + work environment + reinforcement — supervisor support is the biggest single predictor.