8  Training and Development: Concept, Needs Analysis, On-the-Job and Off-the-Job Methods, Learning Theories, and the Kirkpatrick-Phillips Evaluation Models

8.1 Why Training?

Selection ensures the right person joins. Training and Development (T&D) ensures the right person continues to be right as technology, job content and career stage change. Training is job-focused, short-term and aimed at the current role; development is person-focused, long-term and aimed at future roles and broader growth.

8.2 1 · Training vs Development vs Education

TipTraining vs Development vs Education
Dimension Training Development Education
Focus Job — current Person — future Mind — general
Horizon Short Long Long
Audience Non-managers mainly Managers mainly All
Content Specific skill Conceptual + behavioural Broad
Initiator Organisation Individual + organisation Self / institution
NotePYQ trap — Training is JOB-oriented, Development is CAREER-oriented

NTA repeatedly tests the distinction: Training = current job; Development = future career.

8.3 2 · Objectives of Training

  • Bridge the gap between current and required performance.
  • Reduce supervision, errors and waste.
  • Improve safety.
  • Prepare for promotion and succession.
  • Improve morale and reduce turnover.
  • Help the firm adapt to technology and strategy changes.

8.4 3 · Training Needs Analysis — Three Levels

The classical McGehee and Thayer (1961) three-level framework remains the textbook standard.

TipMcGehee–Thayer Three-Level TNA
Level Question answered Data sources
Organisational analysis Where in the organisation is training needed? Strategy, structure, climate, resources
Task / Operational analysis What must be taught? Job analysis, performance standards
Person / Man analysis Who needs the training and what kind? Performance appraisal, tests, observation 

flowchart LR
  O[Organisational<br/>analysis<br/>WHERE] --> T[Task<br/>analysis<br/>WHAT]
  T --> P[Person<br/>analysis<br/>WHO]
  P --> D[Training<br/>design]
  D --> X[Delivery]
  X --> E[Evaluation]
  E -. feedback .-> O
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

8.5 4 · Methods of Training

8.5.1 On-the-Job (OJT) Methods

TipOn-the-Job Training Methods
Method What it is
Coaching Day-to-day guidance by supervisor or coach
Mentoring Long-term career guidance by a senior
Job rotation Planned movement through different jobs
Apprenticeship Combination of OJT and classroom for skilled trades (Apprentices Act 1961)
Internship Pre-employment OJT for students
Understudy / assistantship Working alongside the incumbent to learn the role
Committee assignment Member of a task force exposed to multiple problems
Job instruction training (JIT) Step-by-step “show, tell, do, follow-up”

8.5.2 Off-the-Job Methods

TipOff-the-Job Training Methods
Method What it is
Lecture / classroom One-way transfer; cost-efficient
Conference / seminar Two-way knowledge sharing
Case study (Harvard) Analysis of a real situation
Role play Acting out interpersonal situations
In-basket exercise Sorting and prioritising simulated mail
Business games / simulations Compete in a simulated market
Programmed instruction Self-paced with immediate feedback (Skinner)
Behaviour modelling Observe-imitate-practise-feedback (Bandura)
Sensitivity / T-group training Self-awareness in an unstructured group (Kurt Lewin / NTL)
Vestibule training Off-line replica of actual work area
e-learning / MOOCs Digital, asynchronous, scalable

8.5.3 A Quick Comparison

TipOJT vs Off-JT — Comparison
Dimension On-the-Job Off-the-Job
Cost Low Higher
Transfer of learning Direct Risk of gap
Production disruption Possible None
Standardisation Low High
Trainer expertise Variable High

8.6 5 · Learning Theories that Inform Training Design

TipFive Classical Learning Theories
Theory Author Key idea Training implication
Classical conditioning Pavlov Stimulus-response association Cue-based safety training
Operant conditioning Skinner Behaviour shaped by consequences (reinforcement, punishment) Programmed instruction, behavioural rewards
Social learning Bandura People learn by observing models Behaviour modelling
Cognitive Gagne Information-processing, nine events of instruction Sequenced instructional design
Experiential learning Kolb Four-stage cycle: experience → reflection → conceptualise → experiment Case studies, simulation, action learning

8.6.1 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle

flowchart LR
  CE[Concrete<br/>experience] --> RO[Reflective<br/>observation]
  RO --> AC[Abstract<br/>conceptualisation]
  AC --> AE[Active<br/>experimentation]
  AE --> CE
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

Kolb also describes four learning styles — Diverger, Assimilator, Converger, Accommodator — produced by combinations of the cycle’s stages.

8.7 6 · Principles of Learning that Improve Training

  • Motivation — the learner must want to learn.
  • Reinforcement — feedback and reward consolidate behaviour.
  • Whole vs part learning — match to task complexity.
  • Distributed vs massed practice — spaced practice outperforms cramming.
  • Active practice — doing beats hearing.
  • Meaningfulness — connect new material to known.
  • Goal setting — clear, challenging goals (Locke).
  • Individual differences — pace, mode, and starting point vary.

8.8 7 · Management Development Methods

TipManagement Development Methods
Method What it does
Coaching & mentoring Personalised one-on-one guidance
Job rotation & special assignments Cross-functional exposure
Action learning Real organisational problem solved by a team
Case method Harvard-style analysis
Business games & simulations Decision making in a simulated firm
Sensitivity (T-group) training Inter-personal awareness
Conferences & lectures Conceptual updates
University programmes / executive MBA Conceptual + analytical foundation
Outdoor / adventure training Team building, risk taking
360° feedback for development Self-awareness from multi-source feedback

8.9 8 · Evaluation of Training

8.9.1 Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Model (1959)

TipKirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Training Evaluation
Level Measures Typical instrument
1. Reaction Did they like it? Smile sheet, satisfaction survey
2. Learning Did they learn it? Pre/post test, skill demonstration
3. Behaviour Are they using it on the job? Supervisor observation, 360°
4. Results Did it move the business? KPIs — productivity, quality, sales, safety

8.9.2 Phillips’ Fifth Level — Return on Investment (1996)

Jack Phillips extended Kirkpatrick by adding a fifth level:

TipPhillips ROI Formula

ROI (%) = [(Programme benefits − Programme costs) ÷ Programme costs] × 100

NotePYQ anchor — Phillips added Level 5 (ROI) to Kirkpatrick

Kirkpatrick = 4 levels. Phillips = 5 levels (adds ROI). NTA stems often ask “who added ROI?” — answer is Phillips.

8.9.3 Newer Frameworks

  • CIRO (Warr, Bird & Rackham): Context, Input, Reaction, Outcome.
  • CIPP (Stufflebeam): Context, Input, Process, Product.

8.10 9 · Transfer of Training

Training only matters if it transfers to the job.

TipThree Types of Transfer
Type What happens
Positive transfer Learning improves on-job performance
Negative transfer Learning interferes with performance
Zero transfer No effect either way

Transfer is enhanced by trainee characteristics (ability, motivation), training design (similar conditions, varied practice) and work environment (supervisor support, opportunity to use).

8.11 Practice Questions

Q 01 Training vs Development Easy

Which best distinguishes training from development?

  • ATraining is for managers; development is for workers
  • BTraining is job-oriented and short-term; development is career-oriented and long-term
  • CTraining is voluntary; development is compulsory
  • DThere is no difference
View solution
Correct Option: B
Job vs career, short vs long.
Q 02 McGehee-Thayer levels Hard

The McGehee and Thayer framework analyses training needs at how many levels?

  • ATwo
  • BThree
  • CFour
  • DFive
View solution
Correct Option: B
Three: organisational, task, person.
Q 03 OJT method Easy

Which is not an on-the-job method?

  • ACoaching
  • BJob rotation
  • CApprenticeship
  • DCase study
View solution
Correct Option: D
Case study is off-the-job.
Q 04 Kirkpatrick levels Medium

Kirkpatrick's four levels of training evaluation are:

  • AInput, process, output, ROI
  • BReaction, learning, behaviour, results
  • CContext, input, reaction, outcome
  • DPlan, do, check, act
View solution
Correct Option: B
R-L-B-R: Reaction → Learning → Behaviour → Results.
Q 05 Phillips fifth level Hard

Jack Phillips extended Kirkpatrick's model by adding which fifth level?

  • AEngagement
  • BReturn on Investment (ROI)
  • CCultural fit
  • DSatisfaction
View solution
Correct Option: B
ROI — Phillips, 1996.
Q 06 Kolb stages Medium

Arrange Kolb's experiential learning cycle in correct order:

(i) Reflective observation
(ii) Active experimentation
(iii) Concrete experience
(iv) Abstract conceptualisation

  • A(iii), (i), (iv), (ii)
  • B(i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
  • C(iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
  • D(iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Concrete experience → reflective observation → abstract conceptualisation → active experimentation.
Q 07 Learning theorist match Hard

Match the theorist with the school:

(i) Pavlov (a) Social learning
(ii) Skinner (b) Operant conditioning
(iii) Bandura (c) Experiential learning cycle
(iv) Kolb (d) Classical conditioning
  • A(i)-(d), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(c)
  • B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
  • C(i)-(b), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(a)
  • D(i)-(c), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(d)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Pavlov → classical; Skinner → operant; Bandura → social; Kolb → experiential.
Q 08 Sensitivity training Medium

Sensitivity (T-group) training is most associated with:

  • AF.W. Taylor
  • BKurt Lewin / NTL
  • CB.F. Skinner
  • DHenri Fayol
View solution
Correct Option: B
Kurt Lewin and the National Training Laboratories.
Q 09 Vestibule training Medium

Vestibule training is best described as:

  • ATraining in an off-line replica of the actual work area
  • BTraining in a foreign country
  • CTraining using virtual reality
  • DTraining at a hotel conference room
View solution
Correct Option: A
Off-line replica — combines OJT realism with off-JT safety.
Q 10 Transfer of training Medium

Negative transfer of training means:

  • ATraining had no effect
  • BTraining interferes with on-job performance
  • CTrainees disliked the trainer
  • DTraining generated negative ROI
View solution
Correct Option: B
Negative transfer = learned behaviour hurts performance.
Q 11 In-basket exercise Medium

The in-basket exercise primarily develops:

  • APhysical fitness
  • BPrioritisation and decision-making under time pressure
  • CPublic speaking
  • DManual skill
View solution
Correct Option: B
Simulated mail to be sorted and acted on.
Q 12 Programmed instruction Medium

Programmed instruction is rooted in the work of:

  • ABandura
  • BPavlov
  • CB.F. Skinner
  • DKolb
View solution
Correct Option: C
Skinner's operant conditioning underlies programmed instruction.
Q 13 CIRO model Hard

CIRO stands for:

  • AContext, Input, Reaction, Outcome
  • BCost, Input, Result, Output
  • CClimate, Input, Roles, Output
  • DContent, Interest, Recall, Outcome
View solution
Correct Option: A
Warr, Bird & Rackham.
Q 14 Behaviour modelling Medium

Behaviour modelling as a training method draws most directly on:

  • ASkinner's operant conditioning
  • BBandura's social learning theory
  • CPavlov's classical conditioning
  • DMaslow's need hierarchy
View solution
Correct Option: B
Observe → imitate → practise → feedback.
Q 15 Apprenticeship Hard

Apprenticeship training in India is governed by:

  • AIndustrial Disputes Act 1947
  • BApprentices Act 1961
  • CFactories Act 1948
  • DPayment of Wages Act 1936
View solution
Correct Option: B
Apprentices Act, 1961.
Q 16 Kirkpatrick level — Behaviour Hard

A supervisor's observation that the trainee is using the new technique on the shop floor relates to which level of Kirkpatrick's model?

  • AReaction
  • BLearning
  • CBehaviour
  • DResults
View solution
Correct Option: C
Behaviour = use on the job.
Q 17 Spaced vs massed Medium

Research on learning principles shows:

  • AMassed practice generally outperforms distributed practice
  • BDistributed practice generally outperforms massed practice
  • CBoth are equally effective
  • DNeither produces learning
View solution
Correct Option: B
Spacing improves retention — the "spacing effect".
Q 18 Kolb styles Hard

Which is not one of Kolb's four learning styles?

  • ADiverger
  • BAssimilator
  • CModeller
  • DAccommodator
View solution
Correct Option: C
Four styles: Diverger, Assimilator, Converger, Accommodator.
Q 19 Action learning Medium

Action learning, popularised by Reg Revans, is best described as:

  • ALecture-based training in fast motion
  • BA team working on a real organisational problem under structured reflection
  • CA computer simulation of a market
  • DSelf-paced e-learning
View solution
Correct Option: B
L = P + Q in Revans's formulation: Learning = Programmed knowledge + Questioning insight.
Q 20 ROI formula Hard

Phillips' ROI for training is calculated as:

  • A(Benefits ÷ Costs) × 100
  • B[(Benefits − Costs) ÷ Costs] × 100
  • C[(Costs − Benefits) ÷ Benefits] × 100
  • D(Net profit ÷ Sales) × 100
View solution
Correct Option: B
(Net benefit ÷ Cost) × 100.

8.12 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Training = job + short-term + skill; Development = career + long-term + person.
  • McGehee-Thayer TNA — three levels: organisational (where), task (what), person (who).
  • OJT methods: coaching, mentoring, job rotation, apprenticeship (Apprentices Act 1961), internship, understudy, JIT.
  • Off-JT methods: lecture, case, role play, in-basket, business games, programmed instruction (Skinner), behaviour modelling (Bandura), sensitivity training (Lewin), vestibule, e-learning.
  • Learning theorists: Pavlov (classical), Skinner (operant), Bandura (social), Gagne (cognitive), Kolb (experiential).
  • Kolb’s cycle: Concrete experience → Reflective observation → Abstract conceptualisation → Active experimentation. Four styles: Diverger, Assimilator, Converger, Accommodator.
  • Kirkpatrick — four levels: Reaction, Learning, Behaviour, Results (1959).
  • Phillips — fifth level: Return on Investment (ROI) (1996). ROI = [(Benefits − Costs) ÷ Costs] × 100.
  • CIRO (Warr, Bird & Rackham): Context, Input, Reaction, Outcome.
  • Transfer of training: positive, negative, zero — depends on trainee, design, work environment.
  • Spacing effect: distributed practice beats massed.