21  Interpersonal Behaviour and Group Dynamics: Johari Window, Transactional Analysis, Group Types, Tuckman’s Five Stages, Cohesion, Groupthink and Team Effectiveness

21.1 From Person to People

Work happens between people more often than within them. This chapter covers the two-person lens (interpersonal behaviour, self-awareness, transactions) and the small-group lens (formation, cohesion, groupthink, team effectiveness). Two practical tools — the Johari window and Transactional Analysis — anchor the interpersonal side; Tuckman’s five stages and Janis’s groupthink anchor the group side.

21.2 A · Interpersonal Behaviour

21.2.1 The Johari Window

Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (1955) — the name “Joh-Hari” is taken from their first names — described a four-pane window of what is known to self and to others.

TipThe Johari Window
Known to Self Not known to Self
Known to Others OPEN / Arena BLIND
Not known to Others HIDDEN / Façade UNKNOWN 

flowchart TB
  subgraph JW[Johari Window]
    O[OPEN<br/>known to self<br/>known to others]
    B[BLIND<br/>not known to self<br/>known to others]
    H[HIDDEN<br/>known to self<br/>not known to others]
    U[UNKNOWN<br/>not known to self<br/>not known to others]
  end
  O <--> H
  O <--> B
  B <--> U
  H <--> U
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

TipTwo Routes to Growth — The Window’s Key Insight
Route What it does
Self-disclosure Shrinks the Hidden pane → enlarges the Open pane
Feedback from others Shrinks the Blind pane → enlarges the Open pane

A larger Open pane usually means better interpersonal effectiveness and trust.

21.2.2 Transactional Analysis (TA)

Eric Berne introduced TA in Games People Play (1964) and I’m OK — You’re OK was popularised by Thomas Harris (1967). TA studies the social transactions between people in terms of ego states.

TipBerne’s Three Ego States
Ego state Source Characteristic
Parent (P) Internalised parental figures Critical or nurturing; “should”, “must”
Adult (A) Here-and-now reasoning Rational, fact-based
Child (C) Childhood feelings Free, adapted, or rebellious

21.2.3 Types of Transactions

TipThree Kinds of Transaction
Type Description Outcome
Complementary Response comes from the ego state addressed Communication continues smoothly
Crossed Response comes from a different ego state than addressed Communication breaks down
Ulterior Two messages — a social one and a hidden psychological one Underlying agenda

21.2.4 Life Positions

Thomas Harris popularised four life positions a person can hold about self and others.

TipHarris’s Four Life Positions
Position Outlook
I’m OK — You’re OK Healthy, mature, win-win
I’m OK — You’re not OK Distrustful, blaming
I’m not OK — You’re OK Inferiority, withdrawal
I’m not OK — You’re not OK Hopeless, futile
NotePYQ anchor — I’m OK, You’re OK

The healthy life position is “I’m OK — You’re OK”, popularised in Harris’s 1967 book of the same title.

21.2.5 Strokes and Games

  • Strokes — units of social recognition; positive, negative or conditional.
  • Games — repetitive series of transactions with a hidden agenda and a predictable payoff (often negative).
  • Scripts — life plans formed in childhood that shape adult behaviour.

21.3 B · Group Dynamics

21.3.1 Definition

A group is two or more people who interact, are interdependent, share a goal and perceive themselves as a unit. Kurt Lewin coined the term group dynamics to describe the patterns of interaction that emerge.

21.3.2 Why People Join Groups

  • Security in numbers.
  • Status and self-esteem from group affiliation.
  • Affiliation — meeting social needs.
  • Power through collective action.
  • Goal achievement that requires more than one person.

21.3.3 Types of Groups

TipGroup Typology
Type Description
Formal — Command Defined by the organisation chart — manager and reports
Formal — Task Members working on a defined task; may cut across departments
Informal — Interest Members sharing a specific concern
Informal — Friendship Members sharing personal interests outside work
Reference group A group whose standards a person uses to evaluate self
Membership group A group to which a person actually belongs
In-group / Out-group Group one identifies with vs the rest
Primary / Secondary Small and intimate vs large and impersonal

21.3.4 Tuckman’s Five Stages of Group Development

Bruce Tuckman (1965) proposed four stages and added the fifth (“adjourning”) with Mary Ann Jensen in 1977.

TipTuckman’s Five Stages
Stage What happens
1. Forming Polite, uncertain, dependent on leader; goals unclear
2. Storming Conflict over roles, leadership, methods
3. Norming Norms emerge; cohesion grows; consensus on roles
4. Performing Team works productively; energy on the task
5. Adjourning Wrap-up, dispersion; emotional closure 

flowchart LR
  F[Forming] --> S[Storming]
  S --> N[Norming]
  N --> P[Performing]
  P --> A[Adjourning]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

21.3.5 Group Structure — Key Concepts

TipFive Group-Structure Variables
Variable What it captures
Roles Sets of expected behaviour for a position
Norms Acceptable standards of behaviour shared by the group
Status Socially defined position or rank
Size Smaller groups complete tasks faster; larger fact-find better
Composition / diversity Demographic and skill mix

21.3.6 Roles and Role Conflict

TipRole Concepts
Concept Description
Role identity Attitudes and behaviours consistent with a role
Role perception One’s view of how to act
Role expectations Others’ view of how one should act
Role conflict Conflicting expectations
Role ambiguity Unclear expectations
Role overload / underload Too much or too little expected

21.3.7 Conformity — Asch’s Experiments

Solomon Asch (1951) showed that even on an obvious perceptual task, individuals often conformed to a clearly wrong majority view. Conformity is greatest with unanimous, moderately sized majorities and an unsure self.

21.3.8 Group Cohesion

Cohesion is the degree to which members are attracted to one another and stay in the group. High cohesion is linked to better adherence to norms — whether productive or unproductive.

TipDeterminants of Cohesion
Increases cohesion Decreases cohesion
Small size Large size
Time together High turnover
Difficult entry Easy entry
Past success Past failure
External threats Internal conflict
Member similarity Member heterogeneity

21.3.9 Groupthink — Irving Janis (1972)

Janis coined groupthink to describe the deterioration of mental efficiency and moral judgement that results from in-group pressure in cohesive decision-making groups.

TipEight Symptoms of Groupthink
Symptom Description
1. Illusion of invulnerability “Nothing can go wrong”
2. Collective rationalisation Discounting warnings
3. Belief in inherent morality “Our cause is right”
4. Stereotyped views of out-groups Adversaries cast as foolish or evil
5. Direct pressure on dissenters Loyalty enforced
6. Self-censorship Members keep doubts to themselves
7. Illusion of unanimity Silence read as agreement
8. Self-appointed mind-guards Members shield the group from contrary information
NotePYQ anchor — Bay of Pigs

Janis used the Bay of Pigs (1961) decision under Kennedy as the canonical groupthink case. Other examples: Pearl Harbor, Vietnam escalation, Challenger launch.

21.3.10 Counter-Measures

  • Encourage critical evaluation.
  • Top managers withhold opinions early.
  • Appoint devil’s advocate.
  • Use dialectical inquiry.
  • Bring in outside experts.
  • “Second-chance” meeting before final decision.

21.3.11 Group Decision-Making — Other Phenomena

TipOther Group-Decision Effects
Effect Description
Group shift / polarisation Group decisions are more extreme than the individuals’ starting positions
Risky shift A particular case of polarisation toward greater risk
Social loafing Members exert less effort in a group than alone (Ringelmann effect)
Brainstorming Free idea generation; deferral of judgement
Nominal group technique Members write ideas silently before discussion
Delphi technique Anonymous, iterative expert opinion

21.3.12 Five Bases of Team Effectiveness

TipConditions for Effective Teams
Condition Description
Clear purpose and goals Shared, specific, important
Right composition Diverse skills, appropriate size, complementary roles
Process Effective communication, decision-making, conflict resolution
Context Adequate resources, supportive leadership, reward system
Trust Psychological safety and reliable competence

21.3.13 Belbin’s Team Roles

Meredith Belbin identified nine roles every effective team needs to fill — Plant, Resource Investigator, Coordinator, Shaper, Monitor-Evaluator, Teamworker, Implementer, Completer-Finisher, Specialist. A balanced team has all roles covered.

21.4 Practice Questions

Q 01 Johari Easy

In the Johari window, the pane "known to others but not to self" is called:

  • AOpen
  • BBlind
  • CHidden
  • DUnknown
View solution
Correct Option: B
Blind = known to others, not to self.
Q 02 Johari authors Medium

The Johari Window was developed by:

  • ABerne and Harris
  • BJoseph Luft and Harry Ingham
  • CTuckman and Jensen
  • DLewin and Festinger
View solution
Correct Option: B
"Jo-Hari" — Joseph Luft + Harry Ingham, 1955.
Q 03 TA Medium

Transactional Analysis was developed by:

  • AEric Berne
  • BThomas Harris
  • CCarl Jung
  • DSigmund Freud
View solution
Correct Option: A
Eric Berne, Games People Play, 1964.
Q 04 Ego states Easy

The three ego states in TA are:

  • AId, Ego, Superego
  • BParent, Adult, Child
  • CSelf, Other, Group
  • DInternal, External, Mixed
View solution
Correct Option: B
P-A-C.
Q 05 Life position Medium

The healthy life position popularised by Thomas Harris is:

  • AI'm OK — You're not OK
  • BI'm not OK — You're OK
  • CI'm OK — You're OK
  • DI'm not OK — You're not OK
View solution
Correct Option: C
Healthy, mature, win-win.
Q 06 Tuckman stages Medium

Arrange Tuckman's five stages of group development in order:

(i) Adjourning
(ii) Storming
(iii) Forming
(iv) Performing
(v) Norming

  • A(iii), (ii), (v), (iv), (i)
  • B(iii), (v), (ii), (iv), (i)
  • C(ii), (iii), (v), (iv), (i)
  • D(iii), (ii), (iv), (v), (i)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning.
Q 07 Groupthink Medium

The concept of groupthink was coined by:

  • ASolomon Asch
  • BBruce Tuckman
  • CIrving Janis
  • DKurt Lewin
View solution
Correct Option: C
Janis, 1972, using the Bay of Pigs case.
Q 08 Self-disclosure Medium

Self-disclosure in the Johari window primarily shrinks which pane?

  • AOpen
  • BBlind
  • CHidden
  • DUnknown
View solution
Correct Option: C
Self-disclosure shrinks Hidden; feedback shrinks Blind.
Q 09 Crossed transaction Hard

A "crossed" transaction in TA is one in which:

  • AThe response comes from the ego state addressed
  • BThe response comes from a different ego state than the one addressed
  • CTwo ulterior messages exist
  • DNo response is given
View solution
Correct Option: B
Crossed = different ego state — communication breaks down.
Q 10 Match Hard

Match the contribution with the author:

(i) Johari Window (a) Tuckman
(ii) Transactional Analysis (b) Janis
(iii) Five stages of group development (c) Luft & Ingham
(iv) Groupthink (d) Berne
  • A(i)-(c), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(b)
  • B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
  • C(i)-(d), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
  • D(i)-(b), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(c)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Luft&Ingham-Johari; Berne-TA; Tuckman-stages; Janis-groupthink.
Q 11 Asch Medium

Solomon Asch's experiments are best known for demonstrating:

  • ACognitive dissonance
  • BConformity to group pressure
  • CRisky shift
  • DSocial loafing
View solution
Correct Option: B
Line-length experiment showed conformity to obviously wrong majorities.
Q 12 Cohesion Hard

High group cohesion is most likely to improve productivity when:

  • AGroup norms favour low effort
  • BGroup norms favour high effort
  • CThere are no norms
  • DThe group has no goals
View solution
Correct Option: B
Cohesion amplifies norms — whatever they are.
Q 13 Social loafing Medium

"Social loafing" — members exerting less effort in a group than alone — was first observed in the experiments of:

  • ARingelmann
  • BJanis
  • CTuckman
  • DAsch
View solution
Correct Option: A
The Ringelmann (rope-pulling) effect.
Q 14 Groupthink symptom Hard

"Self-appointed mind-guards" who shield the group from contrary information is a symptom of:

  • ACognitive dissonance
  • BGroupthink
  • CRole conflict
  • DSocial loafing
View solution
Correct Option: B
Janis's eighth symptom.
Q 15 Group polarisation Medium

"Group polarisation" means:

  • AGroup decisions are less extreme than individual ones
  • BGroup decisions are more extreme than the individuals' starting positions
  • CGroups always reach the average position
  • DGroups cannot reach decisions
View solution
Correct Option: B
Group shift / polarisation = more extreme decisions.
Q 16 Devil's advocate Medium

Appointing a "devil's advocate" is a counter-measure for:

  • ASocial loafing
  • BGroupthink
  • CRole overload
  • DConformity
View solution
Correct Option: B
Devil's advocate forces critical evaluation, blunts groupthink.
Q 17 Group type Easy

Members from different departments brought together to launch a new product form a:

  • ACommand group
  • BTask group
  • CFriendship group
  • DReference group
View solution
Correct Option: B
Task group — formal, cross-functional, defined task.
Q 18 Belbin Hard

Belbin's team-role typology identifies how many roles needed in an effective team?

  • AFive
  • BSeven
  • CNine
  • DTwelve
View solution
Correct Option: C
Nine roles including Plant, Coordinator, Shaper, Monitor-Evaluator etc.
Q 19 Adjourning Hard

The "adjourning" stage was added to Tuckman's group-development model in 1977 with:

  • AMary Ann Jensen
  • BBelbin
  • CJanis
  • DLewin
View solution
Correct Option: A
Tuckman & Jensen, 1977.
Q 20 Role ambiguity Medium

An employee who is not sure what is expected in her role is experiencing:

  • ARole conflict
  • BRole ambiguity
  • CRole overload
  • DRole underload
View solution
Correct Option: B
Role ambiguity = unclear expectations.

21.5 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Johari Window (Luft & Ingham, 1955) — four panes: Open, Blind, Hidden, Unknown. Grow the Open pane via self-disclosure (shrinks Hidden) and feedback (shrinks Blind).
  • Transactional Analysis (Berne, 1964) — three ego states Parent-Adult-Child. Transactions: complementary, crossed, ulterior.
  • Harris’s four life positions — healthy one is “I’m OK — You’re OK”.
  • Group types: formal (command, task), informal (interest, friendship), reference, membership, in/out-group, primary/secondary.
  • Tuckman’s stages: Forming → Storming → Norming → Performing → Adjourning (5th added with Jensen, 1977).
  • Group structure: roles, norms, status, size, composition. Role ambiguity / role conflict / role overload.
  • Asch (1951) — conformity experiments. Ringelmann — social loafing.
  • Group cohesion amplifies norms — productive or not.
  • Janis (1972) groupthink — eight symptoms; Bay of Pigs case. Counter-measures: critical eval, devil’s advocate, dialectical inquiry, second-chance meeting.
  • Group polarisation / risky shift — decisions more extreme than individuals.
  • Brainstorming, nominal group, Delphi — structured decision techniques.
  • Belbin’s nine team roles — balanced team covers all.