24  Organisational Change and Development: Forces, Types and Levels of Change, Lewin’s Three-Step and Force-Field, Kotter’s Eight Steps, OD Interventions, Resistance and the Learning Organisation

24.1 Why Change at All?

No organisation operates in a vacuum. Technology, regulation, customer expectations, demographics and globalisation push every firm to change something — its strategy, its structure, its technology, its culture, its people. Organisational change is the process by which firms move from one state to another; organisational development (OD) is the planned, behavioural-science-grounded approach to managing that change. This chapter pulls together the forces driving change, the classical models (Lewin, Kotter), the main OD interventions, the patterns of resistance and the modern ideal of the learning organisation.

24.2 1 · Forces for Change

TipExternal and Internal Forces
External forces Internal forces
Technology and digitisation Strategy and leadership change
Customer needs and competition New product launches
Workforce demographics and diversity Performance gaps
Regulation and policy Internal restructuring
Globalisation and trade flows Mergers and acquisitions
Economic and political conditions Cultural shifts
Social trends — wellness, sustainability Workforce composition changes

24.3 2 · Types and Levels of Change

24.3.1 Planned vs Reactive Change

  • Planned change — proactive, designed in advance to achieve specific goals.
  • Reactive change — response forced by a sudden event.

24.3.2 First-Order vs Second-Order Change

  • First-order (incremental) — improving the present pattern; “more of the same, better”.
  • Second-order (transformational) — fundamental shift in identity, strategy or structure.

24.3.3 Three Levels of Change

TipThree Levels at Which Change Operates
Level Description Examples
Individual Behaviour and skill of one person Training, role change
Group Team norms, processes, composition Team-building, role re-design
Organisation Structure, strategy, culture, technology Re-org, digital transformation, M&A

24.3.4 Four Targets of Change (Leavitt’s Diamond)

Harold Leavitt described four interacting targets — change in any one ripples through the others.

TipLeavitt’s Diamond — Four Targets of Change
Target Examples
Structure Hierarchy, span, centralisation
Technology Tools, software, automation
Tasks Job design, processes
People Skills, attitudes, mindset

24.4 3 · Lewin’s Three-Step Model (1947)

Kurt Lewin offered the most famous model of planned change.

TipLewin’s Three Steps
Step What happens
1. Unfreeze Loosen the existing equilibrium — create awareness of need; reduce defensiveness
2. Change (move) Introduce new behaviours, structures or processes
3. Refreeze Stabilise the new state through reinforcement, policy and reward 

flowchart LR
  U[Unfreeze<br/>create awareness<br/>reduce defensiveness] --> C[Change<br/>introduce new<br/>behaviours]
  C --> R[Refreeze<br/>stabilise<br/>reinforce]
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

NotePYQ trap — Lewin is THREE steps, not eight

Lewin = three steps (unfreeze-change-refreeze). Kotter = eight steps. NTA stems often swap the two.

24.5 4 · Lewin’s Force-Field Analysis

In any change situation, two opposing sets of forces act on the equilibrium.

TipDriving vs Restraining Forces
Force Direction Strategy
Driving forces Push toward change Strengthen — but with care
Restraining forces Push against change Reduce — usually more effective

Reducing restraining forces is usually more effective than strengthening driving forces — the latter raises tension, the former dissolves resistance.

24.6 5 · Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Model (1996)

John Kotter generalised change leadership into an eight-step recipe.

TipKotter’s Eight Steps
# Step
1 Establish a sense of urgency
2 Form a powerful guiding coalition
3 Create a vision for change
4 Communicate the vision
5 Empower others to act on the vision
6 Plan for and create short-term wins
7 Consolidate improvements and produce more change
8 Institutionalise the new approaches in the culture

The first four steps defrost the status quo; the next three introduce the change; the eighth refreezes it — Kotter’s grid maps onto Lewin’s three.

24.7 6 · Other Change Models Worth Knowing

TipOther Change Models
Model Author Idea
ADKAR Jeff Hiatt / Prosci Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, Reinforcement — at the individual level
Bridges’ Transition William Bridges Ending → Neutral zone → New beginning
Beckhard’s Change Equation Beckhard & Harris C = D × V × F > R — change happens when Dissatisfaction × Vision × First steps exceed Resistance
McKinsey 7-S Peters, Waterman, Pascale, Athos Seven interdependent levers must align (already covered)
Appreciative Inquiry Cooperrider Build on strengths — Discover, Dream, Design, Destiny
Theory U Otto Scharmer Co-sensing, presencing, co-creating

24.7.1 Beckhard’s Change Equation in Detail

TipBeckhard’s Equation: C = D × V × F > R
Term Meaning
C Change
D Dissatisfaction with the current state
V Vision of the future
F First concrete steps
R Resistance

The three drivers are multiplicative — if any one is zero, change does not happen.

24.8 7 · Organisation Development (OD) — Definition and Characteristics

24.8.1 Beckhard’s Definition (1969)

OD is a planned, organisation-wide, top-managed effort to increase organisation effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organisation’s processes, using behavioural-science knowledge.

24.8.2 Six Defining Characteristics

  • Planned and systematic.
  • Long-term — not quick fixes.
  • System-wide in scope, even if interventions are local.
  • Top-managed.
  • Grounded in behavioural science.
  • Process-focused — concerned with how the organisation works, not only what it does.

24.9 8 · OD Process — Action Research

OD follows an action-research cycle in which diagnosis and action proceed in iterative loops.

flowchart LR
  E[Entry &<br/>contracting] --> D[Diagnosis]
  D --> F[Feedback]
  F --> P[Planning]
  P --> I[Intervention]
  I --> EV[Evaluation]
  EV -. cycle .-> D
    classDef default fill:#003366,color:#ffffff,stroke:#ffcc00,stroke-width:3px,rx:10px,ry:10px;

24.10 9 · Classification of OD Interventions

French and Bell classified interventions by the target system.

TipOD Interventions by Target
Target Examples
Individual Coaching, counselling, T-group, career planning
Dyad / triad Process consultation, role-negotiation, third-party peacemaking
Team Team-building, role analysis, responsibility charting
Inter-group Inter-group conflict resolution, organisational mirroring
Total organisation Survey feedback, confrontation meeting, Grid OD, large-group interventions (Future Search, Open Space, World Café)
Techno-structural Job redesign, MBO, sociotechnical systems, TQM
Strategic Strategy meetings, real-time strategic change
HRM Performance appraisal, career planning, reward systems

24.10.1 Five Frequently Tested Interventions

TipFive Big OD Interventions and Their Authors
Intervention Author Idea
Sensitivity (T-group) training Kurt Lewin / NTL Unstructured group; learn about self-in-group
Survey feedback Floyd Mann Survey results fed back to the team that generated them
Process consultation Edgar Schein Consultant helps group see its own processes
Confrontation meeting Richard Beckhard (1967) One-day meeting — sub-groups list issues, prioritise, plan action
Grid OD Blake & Mouton Six-phase programme to move toward 9,9 team style

24.10.2 Modern Large-Group Interventions

TipLarge-Group OD Interventions
Intervention Author Idea
Future Search Marvin Weisbord 60+ stakeholders find common ground for the future
Open Space Technology Harrison Owen Self-organising agenda built by participants
World Café Brown & Isaacs Small-table conversations across rotating rounds
Appreciative Inquiry Summit Cooperrider Strengths-based group inquiry

24.11 10 · Resistance to Change

24.11.1 Why People Resist

TipSources of Resistance
Source Description
Economic Fear of job loss, pay cut, lost benefits
Psychological Fear of the unknown, of incompetence, of loss of status
Social Disruption of long-standing groups and friendships
Structural Sunk investment in existing routines
Cultural Threat to identity and meaning
Political Loss of power, influence, resources

24.11.2 Kotter and Schlesinger’s Six Strategies

TipKotter-Schlesinger Strategies for Overcoming Resistance
# Strategy
1 Education and communication
2 Participation and involvement
3 Facilitation and support
4 Negotiation and agreement
5 Manipulation and co-option
6 Explicit and implicit coercion

24.11.3 Functional Resistance

Not all resistance is harmful. Some resistance forces change agents to test their plans, surface flaws, and improve the design.

24.12 11 · Change Agents

A change agent is a person who initiates and manages change — internal (an HR or OD specialist, a leader) or external (a consultant). Effective change agents have:

  • Diagnostic skill to read the system.
  • Technical knowledge of the change content.
  • Inter-personal skill to build trust and listen.
  • Political skill to navigate the system.
  • Personal credibility to be heard.

24.13 12 · The Learning Organisation

Peter Senge in The Fifth Discipline (1990) defined the learning organisation as one that continually expands its capacity to create its future, mastering five disciplines.

TipSenge’s Five Disciplines
# Discipline
1 Personal mastery
2 Mental models
3 Shared vision
4 Team learning
5 Systems thinking (the integrating “fifth” discipline)

24.13.1 Single-Loop vs Double-Loop Learning

Chris Argyris and Donald Schön distinguished:

TipSingle-Loop vs Double-Loop Learning
Type Description Example
Single-loop Fix the error while keeping the underlying mental model Adjust the forecast formula because last quarter missed
Double-loop Question and revise the underlying mental model itself Re-examine the assumption that growth must come from the same channel
Triple-loop (later writers) Reflect on how we learn to learn — meta-level Rethink the firm’s theory of learning

24.14 Practice Questions

Q 01 Lewin steps Easy

Lewin's three-step model of planned change is:

  • APlan-Do-Check
  • BUnfreeze-Change-Refreeze
  • CAwareness-Action-Adjustment
  • DDiagnose-Design-Deliver
View solution
Correct Option: B
Unfreeze → Change → Refreeze.
Q 02 Force-field Hard

In Lewin's force-field analysis, the generally more effective change strategy is to:

  • AStrengthen driving forces
  • BReduce restraining forces
  • CIgnore both
  • DAdd more driving forces
View solution
Correct Option: B
Reducing restraining forces dissolves tension; adding force raises it.
Q 03 Kotter Medium

Kotter's eight-step change model begins with:

  • ACreating a vision
  • BEstablishing a sense of urgency
  • CForming a guiding coalition
  • DInstitutionalising new behaviour
View solution
Correct Option: B
Step 1: establish a sense of urgency.
Q 04 Beckhard equation Hard

Beckhard and Harris's change equation says:

  • AC = D + V + F > R
  • BC = D × V × F > R
  • CC = D − V − F > R
  • DC = D ÷ V ÷ F > R
View solution
Correct Option: B
Multiplicative — if any term is zero, change fails.
Q 05 ADKAR Hard

In the ADKAR model of individual change, the "D" stands for:

  • ADiscovery
  • BDesire
  • CDiagnosis
  • DDesign
View solution
Correct Option: B
Awareness, **Desire**, Knowledge, Ability, Reinforcement.
Q 06 OD def Medium

The classical "planned, organisation-wide, top-managed effort" definition of OD is by:

  • AFrench & Bell
  • BRichard Beckhard
  • CWarren Bennis
  • DEdgar Schein
View solution
Correct Option: B
Beckhard, 1969.
Q 07 Leavitt Hard

Leavitt's diamond identifies how many interacting targets of change?

  • AThree
  • BFour
  • CFive
  • DSeven
View solution
Correct Option: B
Structure, technology, tasks, people.
Q 08 Confrontation Medium

The "confrontation meeting" OD intervention was developed by:

  • AEdgar Schein
  • BRichard Beckhard
  • CKurt Lewin
  • DBlake & Mouton
View solution
Correct Option: B
Beckhard, 1967.
Q 09 Grid OD Medium

Grid OD is associated with:

  • AHersey & Blanchard
  • BBlake & Mouton
  • CVroom & Yetton
  • DPareek & Rao
View solution
Correct Option: B
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton.
Q 10 Match Hard

Match the contribution with the author:

(i) Three-step change model (a) Kotter
(ii) Eight-step change model (b) Senge
(iii) Learning organisation (c) Argyris & Schön
(iv) Single-/double-loop learning (d) Lewin
  • A(i)-(d), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(c)
  • B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(d)
  • C(i)-(b), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(a), (iv)-(c)
  • D(i)-(c), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
View solution
Correct Option: A
Lewin-three; Kotter-eight; Senge-learning org; Argyris & Schön-loops.
Q 11 First vs second order Medium

Replacing one CRM tool with another, while keeping the same sales process and strategy, is best described as:

  • AFirst-order change
  • BSecond-order change
  • CTransformational change
  • DCultural change
View solution
Correct Option: A
Incremental improvement = first-order.
Q 12 Double loop Hard

A team that, after a project failure, questions its underlying assumptions about how customers buy is engaging in:

  • ASingle-loop learning
  • BDouble-loop learning
  • CMechanical learning
  • DNo learning
View solution
Correct Option: B
Double-loop = revise the mental model.
Q 13 Kotter-Schlesinger Medium

Which is not a Kotter-Schlesinger strategy for overcoming resistance?

  • AEducation and communication
  • BParticipation and involvement
  • COutsourcing the function
  • DExplicit and implicit coercion
View solution
Correct Option: C
Outsourcing is not on Kotter-Schlesinger's list.
Q 14 Process consultation Medium

Process consultation, in which the consultant helps a group see its own processes, is associated with:

  • AEdgar Schein
  • BKurt Lewin
  • CRichard Beckhard
  • DFrench & Bell
View solution
Correct Option: A
Edgar Schein.
Q 15 Senge Medium

Senge's "fifth discipline" is:

  • APersonal mastery
  • BShared vision
  • CSystems thinking
  • DMental models
View solution
Correct Option: C
Systems thinking is the integrating discipline.
Q 16 Open Space Hard

Open Space Technology, a large-group OD intervention, was developed by:

  • AMarvin Weisbord
  • BHarrison Owen
  • CCooperrider
  • DOtto Scharmer
View solution
Correct Option: B
Harrison Owen — self-organising agenda.
Q 17 Appreciative inquiry Medium

Appreciative Inquiry is associated with:

  • ADavid Cooperrider
  • BPeter Senge
  • CEdgar Schein
  • DJim Collins
View solution
Correct Option: A
David Cooperrider — 4-D cycle: Discover, Dream, Design, Destiny.
Q 18 Resistance Medium

Which is not a typical source of resistance to change?

  • AFear of job loss
  • BThreat to existing power
  • CSelective perception
  • DHigher pay
View solution
Correct Option: D
Higher pay is an incentive for change, not a source of resistance.
Q 19 Bridges Hard

William Bridges's transition model describes three phases:

  • ABeginning, middle, end
  • BEnding, neutral zone, new beginning
  • CPlan, do, check
  • DDiagnose, design, deliver
View solution
Correct Option: B
Bridges — every transition begins with an ending.
Q 20 Action research Medium

The defining feature of action research in OD is:

  • AA single-shot survey
  • BDiagnosis only
  • CIterative cycles of diagnosis and action
  • DExternally imposed change
View solution
Correct Option: C
Iterative diagnose-act-feedback-act loops.

24.15 Quick Recall

ImportantQuick recall
  • Forces for change — external (technology, regulation, customer, demographics, globalisation) + internal (strategy, performance gaps, M&A).
  • Types: planned vs reactive; first-order (incremental) vs second-order (transformational); individual / group / organisation.
  • Leavitt’s diamond — four targets: structure, technology, tasks, people.
  • Lewin’s three-step model: Unfreeze → Change → Refreeze.
  • Lewin’s force-field — driving vs restraining forces; reduce restraining for durable change.
  • Kotter’s eight steps: urgency, coalition, vision, communicate vision, empower, short-term wins, consolidate, institutionalise.
  • Beckhard equation: C = D × V × F > R — multiplicative.
  • ADKAR (Prosci) — individual-level change: Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, Reinforcement.
  • Bridges’ transition — Ending → Neutral zone → New beginning.
  • OD (Beckhard, 1969) — planned, system-wide, top-managed, behavioural-science based.
  • Action-research cycle: entry → diagnosis → feedback → planning → intervention → evaluation → loop.
  • Key interventions: T-group (Lewin), survey feedback (Mann), process consultation (Schein), confrontation meeting (Beckhard), Grid OD (Blake-Mouton).
  • Large-group: Future Search (Weisbord), Open Space (Owen), World Café (Brown & Isaacs), Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider, 4-D).
  • Sources of resistance: economic, psychological, social, structural, cultural, political.
  • Kotter & Schlesinger — six strategies for overcoming resistance.
  • Learning organisation (Senge, 1990) — five disciplines: personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning, systems thinking (5th).
  • Argyris & Schön — single-loop (fix within existing model), double-loop (revise the model), triple-loop (learn how we learn).