flowchart LR A[Alarm<br/>Fight-or-flight activation] --> R[Resistance<br/>Adaptation, hidden cost] R --> E[Exhaustion<br/>Reserves depleted] style A fill:#FFEBEE,stroke:#C62828 style R fill:#FFF8E1,stroke:#F9A825 style E fill:#FCE4EC,stroke:#AD1457
22 Power, Authority and Stress
This chapter pairs two seemingly different topics that share a deep link. Power and authority examine how influence flows through an organisation — who can ask whom to do what. Stress examines what happens when those demands exceed a person’s capacity to meet them. The link is direct: many of the workplace stressors a person faces come from the way power and authority are exercised around her.
22.3 Power Tactics
When does a person exercise power, and how? Robert Cialdini and others have documented a working set of influence tactics used in the workplace.
TipNine Power Tactics
| Tactic | What it involves |
|---|---|
| Rational persuasion | Logical arguments and factual evidence |
| Inspirational appeals | Appeal to values, ideals, aspirations |
| Consultation | Involving the target in planning the action |
| Ingratiation | Flattery, friendliness, helpfulness |
| Personal appeals | Asking on the basis of friendship or loyalty |
| Exchange | Promising reciprocal benefit |
| Coalition tactics | Enlisting others as supporters |
| Pressure | Demands, threats, persistent reminders |
| Legitimating tactics | Citing rules, policy or higher authority |
The first three (rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation) are the most effective in producing genuine commitment; pressure and exchange typically produce only compliance.
22.4 Organisational Politics
Politics is the use of power to influence outcomes when interests diverge. The textbook definition: “activities that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organisation” (robbins2018ob?).
22.4.1 Why Politics Exists
A small set of conditions reliably produces political behaviour: scarce resources, unclear goals, ambiguous performance measures, zero-sum reward systems, individual differences in personality (Mach, locus of control, risk-taking), low trust, and senior-management role-modelling of political behaviour.
22.4.2 Common Political Behaviours
TipCommon Political Behaviours
| Behaviour | What it looks like |
|---|---|
| Attacking or blaming others | Deflecting responsibility |
| Selectively releasing or withholding information | Information politics |
| Image-building / impression management | Crafting how one is seen |
| Forming coalitions | Building support outside formal lines |
| Cultivating networks | Long-term relationship investments |
| Making oneself indispensable | Becoming the only person who can do X |
| Praising the powerful | Strategic ingratiation |
| Aligning with powerful others | Coat-tailing |
22.4.3 Empowerment — the Constructive Use of Power
The opposite of political-zero-sum power is empowerment — the deliberate distribution of decision authority to those closest to the work. Genuine empowerment requires four elements: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact (Spreitzer’s framework).
22.5 Stress
22.5.1 What is Stress?
Hans Selye, the founder of stress research, defined stress as “the non-specific response of the body to any demand for change” (selye1956?). Modern OB definitions add a perceptual dimension: stress arises when the demands of the situation, as perceived by the person, exceed her perceived capacity to cope.
22.5.2 Eustress vs Distress
Selye himself drew the crucial distinction: not all stress is bad.
TipEustress vs Distress
| Type | Stimulus | Effect |
|---|---|---|
| Eustress | Challenging but manageable demand | Energising, motivating, growth-producing |
| Distress | Overwhelming or chronic demand | Draining, debilitating, performance-reducing |
The Yerkes–Dodson curve captures the working principle: performance rises with arousal up to an optimum, then falls as arousal becomes excessive.
22.5.3 Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Selye described the body’s response to prolonged stress in three stages.
TipSelye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
| Stage | What happens |
|---|---|
| Alarm | Body recognises the stressor; “fight or flight” response — adrenaline, raised heart rate, alertness |
| Resistance | Body adapts to continued exposure; outwardly stable but consuming reserves |
| Exhaustion | Reserves are depleted; performance falls; vulnerability to illness rises |
The model’s value is its insistence that chronic stress is the problem, not the acute episode. The body handles a one-off challenge well; the unrelenting low-level pressure is what damages.
22.5.4 Sources of Stress at Work
Stressors come from three layers — the wider environment, the organisation, and the individual’s own life.
TipThree Layers of Stressors
| Layer | Examples |
|---|---|
| Environmental | Economic uncertainty, political risk, technological change, security concerns |
| Organisational | Task demands, role demands, interpersonal demands, organisational structure, leadership style, lifecycle stage |
| Individual / personal | Family issues, financial concerns, life events, personality |
22.5.6 Karasek’s Job Demand–Control Model
Robert Karasek’s 1979 model is one of the most influential frameworks linking work design to stress and health (karasek1979?). It plots two dimensions — psychological job demands and decision latitude (control) — to produce four types of jobs.
TipKarasek’s Demand–Control Quadrants
| Low control | High control | |
|---|---|---|
| High demands | High-strain (worst — high stress, low health) | Active (best — engaging, growth-producing) |
| Low demands | Passive (atrophying) | Low-strain (relaxed) |
The headline finding: high demands by themselves are not the problem; high demands combined with low control are. The implication is design — increase decision latitude before reducing demand.
22.5.7 The Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) Model
Bakker and Demerouti’s JD-R model extends Karasek by separating two parallel processes (bakker2007?):
- Demands (workload, time pressure, emotional demands) — drive strain and burnout.
- Resources (autonomy, feedback, social support, growth opportunities) — drive engagement and motivation.
The model’s prescription: a healthy job has manageable demands alongside sufficient resources; resources do not just reduce strain — they actively produce engagement.
22.5.8 Burnout
Christina Maslach’s classical work identified three components of burnout, the syndrome of chronic stress unmitigated (maslach1981?).
TipMaslach’s Three Components of Burnout
| Component | What the person experiences |
|---|---|
| Emotional exhaustion | Feeling drained, depleted, overwhelmed |
| Depersonalisation / cynicism | Detachment from work and from those served |
| Reduced personal accomplishment | Sense of ineffectiveness, decline in performance |
The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) remains the standard instrument. The pandemic-era surge in burnout, especially in healthcare and education, has restored the concept to centre-stage.
22.5.9 Consequences of Stress
Untreated stress shows up in three categories of symptom.
TipThree Categories of Stress Symptoms
| Category | Symptoms |
|---|---|
| Physiological | Headaches, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, gastrointestinal disorders, sleep disturbance |
| Psychological | Anxiety, irritability, depression, low job satisfaction, reduced confidence |
| Behavioural | Reduced productivity, absenteeism, turnover, accidents, substance abuse, withdrawal |
22.5.10 Coping Strategies
Coping operates at two levels — what the individual does and what the organisation designs.
Individual Coping
TipIndividual Coping Strategies
| Strategy | What it does |
|---|---|
| Time management | Prioritisation, planning, batch-processing |
| Physical exercise | Regular activity reduces stress hormones, improves sleep |
| Relaxation, meditation, mindfulness | Calms the autonomic nervous system; restores focus |
| Social support | Family, friends, mentors, peers as buffers |
| Cognitive reappraisal | Reframing the stressor; managing perception |
| Sleep hygiene and nutrition | The base layer of resilience |
| Boundary-setting | Saying no; protecting non-work time |
Lazarus and Folkman’s classical distinction is between problem-focused coping (changing the stressor) and emotion-focused coping (changing the response to the stressor). Skilled copers use both.
Organisational Coping
TipOrganisational Coping Strategies
| Strategy | What it does |
|---|---|
| Job redesign | Increase autonomy; reduce role conflict; clarify expectations |
| Workload audits | Diagnose chronic over-loading and address structurally |
| Wellness programmes | Health screening, fitness, mental-health support |
| Employee Assistance Programmes (EAPs) | Confidential counselling and referral services |
| Flexible work arrangements | Hybrid, flexi-hours, compressed workweeks |
| Right-to-disconnect policies | Limits on after-hours communication |
| Manager training | Equip line managers to recognise stress and respond |
| Culture of psychological safety | Norms that allow asking for help without stigma |
The single most-leveraged organisational practice is manager training — the line manager is the proximate cause of most workplace stress and the proximate gatekeeper of most workplace coping.
22.5.11 Workplace Counselling
Counselling is the discussion of an emotional problem with an employee with the general aim of restoring her ability to function effectively. The three classical approaches:
- Directive counselling. The counsellor leads the conversation, suggests options, may give advice. Quick but limits learning.
- Non-directive (Rogerian) counselling. The counsellor listens, reflects, helps the employee discover her own solutions. Slower but builds capability.
- Participative counselling. A blend — the counsellor is more active than in non-directive but does not impose solutions.
Modern workplace EAPs typically use participative counselling combined with referral to specialist help where needed.
22.6 Practice Questions
Eight questions to test the chapter. Each card hides the answer — click Show answer to reveal it.
Q1
French and Raven identified five bases
French and Raven identified five bases of power. Referent power is best defined as power based on:
APosition in the hierarchy
BThe ability to give rewards
CPersonal qualities that make others identify with the leader
DSpecialist knowledge
Show answer
Correct answer
C. Referent power flows from identification with the person.
Q2
Match Weber's three types of authority
Match Weber's three types of authority with their basis of legitimacy:
| Type | Basis | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| (i) | Traditional | (a) | Position in a system of impersonal rules |
| (ii) | Charismatic | (b) | Long-established custom and inheritance |
| (iii) | Rational-legal | (c) | Exceptional personal qualities of the leader |
A(i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(a)
B(i)-(a), (ii)-(b), (iii)-(c)
C(i)-(c), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(b)
D(i)-(b), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(c)
Show answer
Correct answer
A. (i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(a)
Q3
Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome describes t...
Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome describes three stages in the order:
AAlarm → Exhaustion → Resistance
BResistance → Alarm → Exhaustion
CAlarm → Resistance → Exhaustion
DExhaustion → Alarm → Resistance
Show answer
Correct answer
C. Alarm — Resistance — Exhaustion.
Q4
Karasek's Job Demand–Control model predicts that
Karasek's Job Demand–Control model predicts that the highest-strain jobs are those with:
AHigh demands and high control
BHigh demands and low control
CLow demands and high control
DLow demands and low control
Show answer
Correct answer
B. High demands combined with low control define high-strain jobs.
Q5
Maslach's three components of burnout are
Maslach's three components of burnout are:
AAnger, Anxiety, Avoidance
BEmotional exhaustion, Depersonalisation, Reduced personal accomplishment
CStress, Strain, Surrender
DFrustration, Friction, Failure
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, reduced personal accomplishment.
Q6
Power based on the capacity to
Power based on the capacity to give valued rewards is called:
ALegitimate power
BReferent power
CReward power
DExpert power
Show answer
Correct answer
C. Reward power.
Q7
Of the following, which is not
Of the following, which is not a form of role stress?
ARole conflict
BRole ambiguity
CRole overload
DRole power
Show answer
Correct answer
D. The three classical forms are role conflict, role ambiguity and role overload (and role underload).
Q8
The classical distinction between problem-focus...
The classical distinction between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping is associated with:
ASelye
BLazarus and Folkman
CMaslach
DKarasek
Show answer
Correct answer
B. Lazarus and Folkman's transactional model of stress and coping.
ImportantQuick recall
- Power = capacity to influence; Authority = right to command; Influence = actual change. Power-dependence (Emerson): A’s power = B’s dependence.
- French & Raven bases: legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, referent (+ information). Position power = first three; personal power = expert + referent.
- Weber’s three authorities: traditional, charismatic, rational-legal.
- Nine power tactics — most effective: rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation.
- Politics flourishes under: scarce resources, unclear goals, ambiguous metrics, zero-sum rewards, low trust.
- Empowerment (Spreitzer): meaning + competence + self-determination + impact.
- Selye: stress = non-specific response. Eustress vs distress. GAS: Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion.
- Three layers of stressors: environmental, organisational, individual.
- Role stressors: conflict, ambiguity, overload / underload.
- Karasek’s Job Demand–Control: high-strain = high demands + low control. JD-R (Bakker-Demerouti): demands → strain; resources → engagement.
- Maslach burnout: emotional exhaustion + depersonalisation + reduced personal accomplishment.
- Coping (Lazarus-Folkman): problem-focused vs emotion-focused.
- Counselling: directive, non-directive (Rogerian), participative.